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Title: CdTe-based thin film photovoltaics: Recent advances, current challenges and future prospects

Abstract

Cadmium telluride (CdTe)-based cells have emerged as the leading commercialized thin film photovoltaic technology and has intrinsically better temperature coefficients, energy yield, and degradation rates than Si technologies. More than 30 GW peak (GWp) of CdTe-based modules are installed worldwide, multiple companies are in production, modules are shipping at up to 18.6% efficiency, and lab cell efficiency is above 22%. We review developments in the science and technology that have occurred over approximately the past decade. These achievements were enabled by manufacturing innovations and scaling module production, as well as maximizing photocurrent through window layer optimization and alloyed CdSexTe1-x (CST) absorbers. Improved chlorine passivation processes, film microstructure, and serendipitous Se defect passivation significantly increased minority carrier lifetime. Efficiencies >22% have been realized for both Cu and As doped CST-based cells. The path to further efficiency gains hinges primarily on increasing open circuit voltage (Voc) and fill factor (FF) through innovations in materials, fabrication methods, and device stacks. Replacing the longstanding Cu doping with As doping is resulting in better module stability and is being translated to large-scale production. To realize 25% efficiency and >1 V Voc, research and development is needed to increase the minority carrier lifetime beyond 100 ns,more » reduce grain boundary and interface recombination, and tailor band diagrams at the front and back interfaces. Many of these goals have been realized separately however combining them together using scalable manufacturing approaches has been elusive to date. We review these achievements and outstanding opportunities for this remarkable photovoltaic technology.« less

Authors:
ORCiD logo [1];  [2];  [3];  [3];  [3];  [4];  [5];  [5];  [5];  [5];  [5];  [5];  [6];  [6];  [6];  [7];  [8];  [8];  [9];  [10] more »;  [11];  [12];  [12];  [12];  [13] « less
+ Show Author Affiliations
  1. Univ. of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT (United States)
  2. Univ. of Delaware, Newark, DE (United States)
  3. Univ. of Toledo, OH (United States). Wright Center for Photovoltaics Innovation and Commercialization (PVIC)
  4. Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO (United States)
  5. First Solar, Inc., Fort Collins, CO (United States)
  6. Colorado State Univ., Fort Collins, CO (United States)
  7. Colorado State Univ., Fort Collins, CO (United States); National Renewable Energy Lab. (NREL), Golden, CO (United States)
  8. National Renewable Energy Lab. (NREL), Golden, CO (United States)
  9. Universita’ di Verona (Italy)
  10. Bowling Green State Univ., OH (United States)
  11. Univ. of Illinois, Chicago, IL (United States)
  12. Loughborough Univ. (United Kingdom)
  13. US Geological Survey, Reston, VA (United States)
Publication Date:
Research Org.:
National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), Golden, CO (United States)
Sponsoring Org.:
USDOE Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE), Renewable Power Office. Solar Energy Technologies Office; National Science Foundation (NSF)
OSTI Identifier:
1971883
Report Number(s):
NREL/JA-5K00-85320
Journal ID: ISSN 0927-0248; MainId:86093;UUID:7411c2d2-7cf9-4c9b-9bc2-35cdb8e98d24;MainAdminID:69349
Grant/Contract Number:  
AC36-08GO28308; EE0007543; EE0008557; EE0008552; EE0008974; 37989; 1711885
Resource Type:
Accepted Manuscript
Journal Name:
Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells
Additional Journal Information:
Journal Volume: 255; Journal ID: ISSN 0927-0248
Publisher:
Elsevier
Country of Publication:
United States
Language:
English
Subject:
14 SOLAR ENERGY; cadmium telluride; CdTe photovoltaics

Citation Formats

Scarpulla, Michael A., McCandless, Brian, Phillips, Adam B., Yan, Yanfa, Heben, Michael J., Wolden, Colin, Xiong, Gang, Metzger, Wyatt K., Mao, Dan, Krasikov, Dmitry, Sankin, Igor, Grover, Sachit, Munshi, Amit, Sampath, Walajabad, Sites, James R., Bothwell, Alexandra, Albin, David, Reese, Matthew O., Romeo, Alessandro, Nardone, Marco, Klie, Robert, Walls, J. Michael, Fiducia, Thomas, Abbas, Ali, and Hayes, Sarah M. CdTe-based thin film photovoltaics: Recent advances, current challenges and future prospects. United States: N. p., 2023. Web. doi:10.1016/j.solmat.2023.112289.
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Scarpulla, Michael A., McCandless, Brian, Phillips, Adam B., Yan, Yanfa, Heben, Michael J., Wolden, Colin, Xiong, Gang, Metzger, Wyatt K., Mao, Dan, Krasikov, Dmitry, Sankin, Igor, Grover, Sachit, Munshi, Amit, Sampath, Walajabad, Sites, James R., Bothwell, Alexandra, Albin, David, Reese, Matthew O., Romeo, Alessandro, Nardone, Marco, Klie, Robert, Walls, J. Michael, Fiducia, Thomas, Abbas, Ali, & Hayes, Sarah M. CdTe-based thin film photovoltaics: Recent advances, current challenges and future prospects. United States. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2023.112289
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Scarpulla, Michael A., McCandless, Brian, Phillips, Adam B., Yan, Yanfa, Heben, Michael J., Wolden, Colin, Xiong, Gang, Metzger, Wyatt K., Mao, Dan, Krasikov, Dmitry, Sankin, Igor, Grover, Sachit, Munshi, Amit, Sampath, Walajabad, Sites, James R., Bothwell, Alexandra, Albin, David, Reese, Matthew O., Romeo, Alessandro, Nardone, Marco, Klie, Robert, Walls, J. Michael, Fiducia, Thomas, Abbas, Ali, and Hayes, Sarah M. Tue . "CdTe-based thin film photovoltaics: Recent advances, current challenges and future prospects". United States. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2023.112289. https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/1971883.
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@article{osti_1971883,
title = {CdTe-based thin film photovoltaics: Recent advances, current challenges and future prospects},
author = {Scarpulla, Michael A. and McCandless, Brian and Phillips, Adam B. and Yan, Yanfa and Heben, Michael J. and Wolden, Colin and Xiong, Gang and Metzger, Wyatt K. and Mao, Dan and Krasikov, Dmitry and Sankin, Igor and Grover, Sachit and Munshi, Amit and Sampath, Walajabad and Sites, James R. and Bothwell, Alexandra and Albin, David and Reese, Matthew O. and Romeo, Alessandro and Nardone, Marco and Klie, Robert and Walls, J. Michael and Fiducia, Thomas and Abbas, Ali and Hayes, Sarah M.},
abstractNote = {Cadmium telluride (CdTe)-based cells have emerged as the leading commercialized thin film photovoltaic technology and has intrinsically better temperature coefficients, energy yield, and degradation rates than Si technologies. More than 30 GW peak (GWp) of CdTe-based modules are installed worldwide, multiple companies are in production, modules are shipping at up to 18.6% efficiency, and lab cell efficiency is above 22%. We review developments in the science and technology that have occurred over approximately the past decade. These achievements were enabled by manufacturing innovations and scaling module production, as well as maximizing photocurrent through window layer optimization and alloyed CdSexTe1-x (CST) absorbers. Improved chlorine passivation processes, film microstructure, and serendipitous Se defect passivation significantly increased minority carrier lifetime. Efficiencies >22% have been realized for both Cu and As doped CST-based cells. The path to further efficiency gains hinges primarily on increasing open circuit voltage (Voc) and fill factor (FF) through innovations in materials, fabrication methods, and device stacks. Replacing the longstanding Cu doping with As doping is resulting in better module stability and is being translated to large-scale production. To realize 25% efficiency and >1 V Voc, research and development is needed to increase the minority carrier lifetime beyond 100 ns, reduce grain boundary and interface recombination, and tailor band diagrams at the front and back interfaces. Many of these goals have been realized separately however combining them together using scalable manufacturing approaches has been elusive to date. We review these achievements and outstanding opportunities for this remarkable photovoltaic technology.},
doi = {10.1016/j.solmat.2023.112289},
journal = {Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells},
number = ,
volume = 255,
place = {United States},
year = {Tue Mar 28 00:00:00 EDT 2023},
month = {Tue Mar 28 00:00:00 EDT 2023}
}
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Electronic structure and optical properties of CdSexTe1−x mixed crystals
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Structural phase change and optical band gap bowing in hot wall deposited CdSexTe1−x thin films
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20%-efficient polycrystalline Cd(Se,Te) thin-film solar cells with compositional gradient near the front junction
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Co-sublimation of CdSexTe1−x layers for CdTe solar cells
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Effect of CdCl2 passivation treatment on microstructure and performance of CdSeTe/CdTe thin-film photovoltaic devices
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Polycrystalline CdSeTe/CdTe Absorber Cells With 28 mA/cm 2 Short-Circuit Current
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Selenium passivates grain boundaries in alloyed CdTe solar cells
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Effect of selenium and chlorine co-passivation in polycrystalline CdSeTe devices
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Roles of bandgrading, lifetime, band alignment, and carrier concentration in high-efficiency CdSeTe solar cells
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Comparing the Fundamental Physics and Device Performance of Transparent, Conductive Nanostructured Networks with Conventional Transparent Conducting Oxides
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CdS/CdTe thin-film devices using a Cd[sub 2]SnO[sub 4] transparent conducting oxide
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Back contact and reach-through diode effects in thin-film photovoltaics
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Revealing the Importance of Front Interface Quality in Highly Doped CdSe x Te 1– x Solar Cells
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Thermomechanical Lift-Off and Recontacting of CdTe Solar Cells
journal, November 2018

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SnO 2 -Catalyzed Oxidation in High-Efficiency CdTe Solar Cells
journal, March 2019

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Back contacts materials used in thin film CdTe solar cells—A review
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Relation Between an Atomic Electronegativity Scale and the Work Function
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A review of ohmic and rectifying contacts on cadmium telluride
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Development of Cu‐doped ZnTe as a back‐contact interface layer for thin‐film CdS/CdTe solar cells
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High efficiency CSS CdTe solar cells
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How the amount of copper influences the formation and stability of defects in CdTe solar cells
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Intrinsic surface passivation of CdTe
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Selective Cd Removal From CdTe for High-Efficiency Te Back-Contact Formation
journal, July 2018

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Pathways toward higher performance CdS/CdTe devices: Te exposure of CdTe surface before ZnTe:Cu/Ti contacting
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Hole Transport Material for Passivated Back Contacts on CdTe Solar Cells
conference, June 2021

Te Layer to Reduce the CdTe Back-Contact Barrier
journal, January 2018

Controlling Band Alignment at the Back Interface of Cadmium Telluride Solar Cells using ZnTe and Te Buffer Layers
journal, January 2019

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Optimization of the Solution-Based Aluminium Gallium Oxide Buffer Layer for CdTe Solar Cells
conference, June 2021

Formation of a stable ohmic contact to CdTe thin films through the diffusion of P from Ni-P
journal, January 1995

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Evaluation of PbTe and SnTe as ohmic contact layers in CdTe solar cell devices
journal, October 2022

Titanium Carbide MXene Hole Contacts for CdTe Photovoltaics
journal, September 2022

A comprehensive picture of Cu doping in CdTe solar cells
journal, November 2013

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Incorporation of Cd 1-x Mg x Te as an Electron Reflector for Cadmium Telluride Photovoltaic Cells
journal, January 2015

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Dependence of the Minority-Carrier Lifetime on the Stoichiometry of CdTe Using Time-Resolved Photoluminescence and First-Principles Calculations
journal, August 2013

Correlation between the electronic structures and diffusion paths of interstitial defects in semiconductors: The case of CdTe
journal, October 2014

Enhanced p-type dopability of P and As in CdTe using non-equilibrium thermal processing
journal, July 2015

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  • Journal of Applied Physics, Vol. 118, Issue 2
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First-principles multiple-barrier diffusion theory: The case study of interstitial diffusion in CdTe
journal, February 2015

Tuning the Fermi level beyond the equilibrium doping limit through quenching: The case of CdTe
journal, December 2014

First-principles study of roles of Cu and Cl in polycrystalline CdTe
journal, January 2016

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Spectroscopic and Microscopic Defect and Carrier-Lifetime Analysis in Cadmium Telluride
journal, November 2018

Theoretical analysis of non-radiative multiphonon recombination activity of intrinsic defects in CdTe
journal, February 2016

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Rapid Recombination by Cadmium Vacancies in CdTe
journal, March 2021

Defect interactions and the role of complexes in the CdTe solar cell absorber
journal, January 2017

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High p-type doping, mobility, and photocarrier lifetime in arsenic-doped CdTe single crystals
journal, May 2018

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Doping properties of cadmium-rich arsenic-doped CdTe single crystals: Evidence of metastable AX behavior
journal, December 2017

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Growth and characterization of Arsenic doped CdTe single crystals grown by Cd-solvent traveling-heater method
journal, June 2017

Effects of absorber near-interface compensation on Cd(Se,Te) solar cell performance
journal, October 2022

A Comparative Study of the Effects of Nontoxic Chloride Treatments on CdTe Solar Cell Microstructure and Stoichiometry
journal, July 2015

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Controlled activation of ZnTe:Cu contacted CdTe solar cells using rapid thermal processing
journal, February 2015

Effect of Stoichiometry on the Lifetime and Doping Concentration of Polycrystalline CdTe
journal, September 2017

Near infrared laser annealing of CdTe and in-situ measurement of the evolution of structural and optical properties
journal, April 2016

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Laser processing for thin film chalcogenide photovoltaics: a review and prospectus
journal, January 2015

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Thin Film Solar Cells: Materials Science at Interfaces
journal, October 2005

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Recrystallization and sulfur diffusion in CdCl2-treated CdTe/CdS thin films
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Chlorine activated stacking fault removal mechanism in thin film CdTe solar cells: the missing piece
journal, August 2021

Atomic-resolution characterization of the effects of CdCl 2 treatment on poly-crystalline CdTe thin films
journal, August 2014

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Correlative impurity distribution analysis in cadmium telluride (CdTe) thin-film solar cells by ToF-SIMS 2D imaging
journal, December 2016

Measurement of Chlorine Concentrations at CdTe Grain Boundaries
journal, November 2014

Direct evidence of enhanced chlorine segregation at grain boundaries in polycrystalline CdTe thin films via three-dimensional TOF-SIMS imaging: Chlorine segregation at grain boundaries in CdTe thin films
journal, April 2014

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Grain-Boundary-Enhanced Carrier Collection in CdTe Solar Cells
journal, April 2014

Grain-boundary recombination in Cu(In,Ga)Se2 solar cells
journal, December 2005

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The impact of charged grain boundaries on thin-film solar cells and characterization
journal, September 2005

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Manufacturing of CSS CdTe solar cells
journal, February 2000

Study of difluorochloromethane activation treatment on low substrate temperature deposited CdTe solar cells
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Procedure to obtain higher than 14% efficient thin film CdS/CdTe solar cells activated with HCF2Cl gas
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Influence of oxygen concentration in the CdCl 2 treatment process on the photovoltaic properties of CdTe/CdS solar cells
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Layer-by-Layer Assembly of Sintered CdSe x Te 1– x Nanocrystal Solar Cells
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Recombination and bandgap engineering in CdSeTe/CdTe solar cells
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Surface analysis of CdTe thin film solar cells
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Grain boundaries in CdTe thin film solar cells: a review
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Grain Growth in Thin Films
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Equilibrium Phase Diagrams of the CdTe-CdCl2 and CdTe-CdBr2 Systems [CdTe-CdCl2系およびCdTe-CdBr2系平衡状態図]
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Vapor Pressure of Cadmium Chloride and Thermodynamic Data for CdCl2 Gas
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CdTe:CdCl2:O2 annealing process
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The diffusion of chlorine in CdTe
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Electronic properties of chlorine doped cadmium telluride used as high energy photoconductive detector
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Electrical Activity of Defects in CdTe Solar Cells via Aberration-corrected STEM
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Copper impurity behaviour in CdTe films
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First-principles-based analysis of the influence of Cu on CdTe electronic properties
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Numerical Simulation of Copper Migration in Single Crystal CdTe
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New perspective on the performance stability of CdTe solar cells
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Improved stability of CdTe solar cells by absorber surface etching
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Effects of CdCl2 treatment on the recrystallization and electro-optical properties of CdTe thin films
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Carrier providers or killers: The case of Cu defects in CdTe
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Structural and electronic properties of CdTe 1-x Se x films and their application in solar cells
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Practical doping principles
journal, July 2003

Selenium lowers bulk recombination
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PVRD-FASP: A Unified Solver for Modeling Carrier and Defect Transport in Photovoltaic Devices
journal, November 2019

Complex behaviour of Ag in CdTe
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Performance stability of photovoltaic modules in different climates: Electrical stability of PV modules
journal, June 2017

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Self-compensation in chlorine-doped CdTe
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Effect of sodium on recrystallization and photovoltaic properties of CdTe solar cells
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Analysis of the influence on the performance degradation of CdTe solar cells by the front contact
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Reduced Recombination and Improved Performance of CdSe/CdTe Solar Cells due to Cu Migration Induced by Light Soaking
journal, April 2022

  • Jamarkattel, Manoj K.; Mathew, Xavier; Phillips, Adam B.
  • ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, Vol. 14, Issue 17
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Phase control of CuxTe film and its effects on CdS/CdTe solar cell
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Doping of polycrystalline CdTe for high-efficiency solar cells on flexible metal foil
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Effect of Copassivation of Cl and Cu on CdTe Grain Boundaries
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Degradation of CdTe Solar Cells: Simulation and Experiment
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Fabrication procedures and process sensitivities for CdS/CdTe solar cells
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A Search for Degradation Mechanisms of CdTe/CdS Solar Cells
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CdTe contacts for CdTe/CdS solar cells: effect of Cu thickness, surface preparation and recontacting on device performance and stability
journal, June 2005

Electron-beam induced degradation in CdTe photovoltaics
journal, August 2000

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Imaging, microscopic analysis, and modeling of a CdTe module degraded by heat and light
journal, May 2018

Copper inclusion and migration from the back contact in CdTe solar cells
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Towards understanding junction degradation in cadmium telluride solar cells
journal, June 2014

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Quantifying Large Lattice Relaxations in Photovoltaic Devices
journal, February 2020

Electrical potential investigation of reversible metastability and irreversible degradation of CdTe solar cells
journal, May 2022

Random diode arrays and mesoscale physics of large-area semiconductor devices
journal, January 2004

Effects of nonuniformity in thin-film photovoltaics
journal, June 2002

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Coupled electron–heat transport in nonuniform thin film semiconductor structures
journal, October 2012

Sustainability evaluation of CdTe PV: An update
journal, May 2020

  • Fthenakis, Vasilis; Athias, Clement; Blumenthal, Alyssa
  • Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Vol. 123
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Life cycle impact analysis of cadmium in CdTe PV production
journal, August 2004

Cadmium telluride (CdTe) and cadmium selenide (CdSe) leaching behavior and surface chemistry in response to pH and O2
journal, May 2015

Leaching of cadmium and tellurium from cadmium telluride (CdTe) thin-film solar panels under simulated landfill conditions
journal, August 2017

Bioaccessibility as a determining factor in the bioavailability and toxicokinetics of cadmium compounds
journal, November 2021

Substance flow analysis of cadmium in Korea
journal, February 2013

Dynamic modeling of cadmium substance flow with zinc and steel demand in Japan
journal, April 2012

Critical minerals: A review of elemental trends in comprehensive criticality studies
journal, December 2018

Global tellurium supply potential from electrolytic copper refining
journal, September 2022

Byproduct critical metal supply and demand and implications for the energy transition: A case study of tellurium supply and CdTe PV demand
journal, October 2022

Global anthropogenic tellurium cycles for 1940–2010
journal, July 2013

Towards resilient and sustainable supply of critical elements from the copper supply chain: A review
journal, July 2021

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