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Title: A minimum information standard for reproducing bench-scale bacterial cell growth and productivity

Abstract

Reproducing, exchanging, comparing, and building on each other’s work is foundational to technology advances. Advancing biotechnology calls for reliable reuse of engineered organisms. Reliable reuse of engineered organisms requires reproducible growth and productivity. Here, we identify the experimental factors that have the greatest effect on the growth and productivity of our engineered organisms in order to demonstrate reproducibility for biotechnology. Here, we present a draft of a Minimum Information Standard for Engineered Organism Experiments based on this method. We evaluate the effect of 22 factors on Escherichia coli engineered to produce the small molecule lycopene, and 18 factors on E. coli engineered to produce red fluorescent protein. Container geometry and shaking have the greatest effect on product titer and yield. We reproduce our results under two different conditions of reproducibility: conditions of use (different fractional factorial experiments), and time (48 biological replicates performed on 12 different days over four months).

Authors:
 [1];  [2];  [3];  [4]
  1. Joint Initiative for Metrology in Biology, Stanford, CA (United States); National Inst. of Standards and Technology, Stanford, CA (United States); Stanford Univ., Stanford, CA (United States); SLAC National Accelerator Lab., Menlo Park, CA (United States)
  2. Joint Initiative for Metrology in Biology, Stanford, CA (United States); National Inst. of Standards and Technology, Stanford, CA (United States); Stanford Univ., Stanford, CA (United States)
  3. Joint Initiative for Metrology in Biology, Stanford, CA (United States); National Inst. of Standards and Technology, Stanford, CA (United States); Stanford Univ., Stanford, CA (United States); Univ. of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN (United States)
  4. National Inst. of Standards and Technology (NIST), Gaithersburg, MD (United States)
Publication Date:
Research Org.:
SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory (SLAC), Menlo Park, CA (United States)
Sponsoring Org.:
USDOE
OSTI Identifier:
1480469
Grant/Contract Number:  
AC02-76SF00515
Resource Type:
Accepted Manuscript
Journal Name:
Communications Biology
Additional Journal Information:
Journal Volume: 1; Journal Issue: 1; Journal ID: ISSN 2399-3642
Publisher:
Springer Nature
Country of Publication:
United States
Language:
English
Subject:
59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

Citation Formats

Salit, Marc, Hecht, Ariel, Munro, Sarah A., and Filliben, James. A minimum information standard for reproducing bench-scale bacterial cell growth and productivity. United States: N. p., 2018. Web. doi:10.1038/s42003-018-0220-6.
Salit, Marc, Hecht, Ariel, Munro, Sarah A., & Filliben, James. A minimum information standard for reproducing bench-scale bacterial cell growth and productivity. United States. https://doi.org/10.1038/s42003-018-0220-6
Salit, Marc, Hecht, Ariel, Munro, Sarah A., and Filliben, James. Sat . "A minimum information standard for reproducing bench-scale bacterial cell growth and productivity". United States. https://doi.org/10.1038/s42003-018-0220-6. https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/1480469.
@article{osti_1480469,
title = {A minimum information standard for reproducing bench-scale bacterial cell growth and productivity},
author = {Salit, Marc and Hecht, Ariel and Munro, Sarah A. and Filliben, James},
abstractNote = {Reproducing, exchanging, comparing, and building on each other’s work is foundational to technology advances. Advancing biotechnology calls for reliable reuse of engineered organisms. Reliable reuse of engineered organisms requires reproducible growth and productivity. Here, we identify the experimental factors that have the greatest effect on the growth and productivity of our engineered organisms in order to demonstrate reproducibility for biotechnology. Here, we present a draft of a Minimum Information Standard for Engineered Organism Experiments based on this method. We evaluate the effect of 22 factors on Escherichia coli engineered to produce the small molecule lycopene, and 18 factors on E. coli engineered to produce red fluorescent protein. Container geometry and shaking have the greatest effect on product titer and yield. We reproduce our results under two different conditions of reproducibility: conditions of use (different fractional factorial experiments), and time (48 biological replicates performed on 12 different days over four months).},
doi = {10.1038/s42003-018-0220-6},
journal = {Communications Biology},
number = 1,
volume = 1,
place = {United States},
year = {Sat Dec 01 00:00:00 EST 2018},
month = {Sat Dec 01 00:00:00 EST 2018}
}

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Free Publicly Available Full Text
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Cited by: 15 works
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Figures / Tables:

Table 1 Table 1: 32 experimental factors that have been documented to affect cell growth and productivity

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margin-top: 0.5em; padding-left: 0; line-height:1.8em;"> <li> <span style="color:#5C7B2D;"> Singh, Vineeta; Haque, Shafiul; Niwas, Ram</span> </li> <li> Frontiers in Microbiology, Vol. 7</li> <li> <span class="text-muted related-url">DOI: <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2016.02087" class="text-muted" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">10.3389/fmicb.2016.02087<span class="fa fa-external-link" aria-hidden="true"></span></a></span> </li> </ul> <hr/> </div> </div> <div class="pagination-container small"> <a class="pure-button prev page" href="#" rel="prev"><span class="sr-only">Previous Page</span><span class="fa fa-angle-left"></span></a> <ul class="pagination d-inline-block" style="padding-left:.2em;"></ul> <a class="pure-button next page" href="#" rel="next"><span class="sr-only">Next Page</span><span class="fa fa-angle-right"></span></a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="col-sm-3 order-sm-3"> <ul class="nav nav-stacked"> <li class="active"><a href="" class="reference-type-filter tab-nav" data-tab="biblio-references" data-filter="type" data-pattern="*"><span class="fa fa-angle-right"></span> All References</a></li> <li class="small" style="margin-left:.75em; 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margin-top:0px;">Similar Records in DOE PAGES and OSTI.GOV collections:</p> <aside> <ul class="item-list" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/ItemList" style="padding-left:0; list-style-type: none;"> <li> <div class="article item document" itemprop="itemListElement" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/WebPage"><meta itemprop="position" content="0" /><div class="item-info"> <h2 class="title" itemprop="name headline"><a href="/pages/biblio/1807728-promoter-architecture-differences-among-alphaproteobacteria-other-bacterial-taxa" itemprop="url">Promoter Architecture Differences among <i>Alphaproteobacteria</i> and Other Bacterial Taxa</a></h2> <div class="metadata"> <small class="text-muted" style="text-transform:uppercase;display:block;line-height:2.5em;">Journal Article</small><span class="authors"> <span class="author">Myers, Kevin S.</span> ; <span class="author">Noguera, Daniel R.</span> ; <span class="author">Donohue, Timothy J.</span> ; <span class="author">...</span> <span class="text-muted pubdata"> - mSystems</span> </span> </div> <div class="abstract">Much of our knowledge of bacterial transcription initiation has been derived from studying the promoters of Escherichia coli and Bacillus subtilis. Given the expansive diversity across the bacterial phylogeny, it is unclear how much of this knowledge can be applied to other organisms. Here, we report on bioinformatic analyses of promoter sequences of the primary σ factor (σ<sup>70</sup>) by leveraging publicly available transcription start site (TSS) sequencing data sets for nine bacterial species spanning five phyla. This analysis identifies previously unreported differences in the –35 and –10 elements of σ<sup>70</sup>-dependent promoters in several groups of bacteria. We found that <em>Actinobacteria</em><a href='#' onclick='$(this).hide().next().show().next().show();return false;' style='margin-left:10px;'>more »</a><span style='display:none;'> and <em>Betaproteobacteria</em> σ<sup>70</sup>-dependent promoters lack the TTG triad in their –35 element, which is predicted to be conserved across the bacterial phyla. In addition, the majority of the <em>Alphaproteobacteria</em> σ<sup>70</sup>-dependent promoters analyzed lacked the thymine at position –7 that is highly conserved in other phyla. Bioinformatic examination of the <em>Alphaproteobacteria</em> σ<sup>70</sup>-dependent promoters identifies a significant overrepresentation of essential genes and ones encoding proteins with common cellular functions downstream of promoters containing an A, C, or G at position –7. We propose that transcription of many σ<sup>70</sup>-dependent promoters in <em>Alphaproteobacteria</em> depends on the transcription factor CarD, which is an essential protein in several members of this phylum. Our analysis expands the knowledge of promoter architecture across the bacterial phylogeny and provides new information that can be used to engineer bacteria for use in medical, environmental, agricultural, and biotechnological processes.</span><a href='#' onclick='$(this).hide().prev().hide().prev().show();return false;' style='margin-left:10px;display:none;'>« less</a></div><div class="metadata-links small clearfix text-muted" style="margin-top:15px;"> <div class="pure-menu pure-menu-horizontal pull-right" style="width:unset;"> <ul class="pure-menu-list"> <li class="pure-menu-item"><span class="item-info-ftlink"><a class="misc doi-link " href="https://doi.org/10.1128/mSystems.00526-21" target="_blank" rel="noopener" title="Link to document DOI" data-ostiid="1807728" data-product-type="Journal Article" data-product-subtype="PA" >https://doi.org/10.1128/mSystems.00526-21</a></span></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div class="clearfix"></div> </div> </li> <li> <div class="article item document" itemprop="itemListElement" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/WebPage"><meta itemprop="position" content="2" /><div class="item-info"> <h2 class="title" itemprop="name headline"><a href="/pages/biblio/1432073-improving-methyl-ketone-production-escherichia-coli-heterologous-expression-nadhdependent-fabg" itemprop="url">Improving methyl ketone production in <i>Escherichia coli</i> by heterologous expression of NADH‐dependent FabG</a></h2> <div class="metadata"> <small class="text-muted" style="text-transform:uppercase;display:block;line-height:2.5em;">Journal Article</small><span class="authors"> <span class="author">Goh, Ee‐Been</span> ; <span class="author">Chen, Yan</span> ; <span class="author">Petzold, Christopher J.</span> ; <span class="author">...</span> <span class="text-muted pubdata"> - Biotechnology and Bioengineering</span> </span> </div> <div class="abstract">Abstract We previously engineered Escherichia coli to overproduce medium‐ to long‐chain saturated and monounsaturated methyl ketones, which could potentially be applied as diesel fuel blending agents or in the flavor and fragrance industry. Recent efforts at strain optimization have focused on cofactor balance, as fatty acid‐derived pathways face the systematic metabolic challenge of net NADPH consumption (in large part, resulting from the key fatty acid biosynthetic enzyme FabG [β‐ketoacyl‐ACP reductase]) and net NADH production. In this study, we attempted to mitigate cofactor imbalance by heterologously expressing NADH‐dependent, rather than NADPH‐dependent, versions of FabG identified in previous studies. Of the four<a href='#' onclick='$(this).hide().next().show().next().show();return false;' style='margin-left:10px;'>more »</a><span style='display:none;'> NADH‐dependent versions of FabG tested in our previously best‐reported methyl ketone‐producing strain (EGS1895), the version from Acholeplasma laidlawii (Al_FabG) showed the greatest increase in methyl ketone yield in shake flasks (35–75% higher than for an RFP negative‐control strain, depending on sugar loading). An improved strain (EGS2920) attained methyl ketone titers during fed‐batch fermentation of 5.4 ± 0.5 g/L, which were, on average, ca. 40% greater than those for the base strain (EGS1895) under fermentation conditions optimized in this study. Shotgun proteomic data for strains EGS2920 and EGS1895 during fed‐batch fermentation were consistent with the goal of alleviating NADPH limitation through expression of Al_FabG. For example, relative to strain EGS1895, strain EGS2920 significantly upregulated glucose‐6‐phosphate isomerase (directing flux into glycolysis rather than the NADPH‐producing pentose phosphate pathway) and downregulated MaeB (a NADP <sup>+</sup> ‐dependent malate dehydrogenase). Overall, the results suggest that heterologous expression of NADH‐dependent FabG in E. coli may improve sustained production of fatty acid‐derived renewable fuels and chemicals.</span><a href='#' onclick='$(this).hide().prev().hide().prev().show();return false;' style='margin-left:10px;display:none;'>« less</a></div><div class="metadata-links small clearfix text-muted" style="margin-top:15px;"> <span class="fa fa-book text-muted" aria-hidden="true"></span> Cited by 12<div class="pure-menu pure-menu-horizontal pull-right" style="width:unset;"> <ul class="pure-menu-list"> <li class="pure-menu-item"><span class="item-info-ftlink"><a class="misc doi-link " href="https://doi.org/10.1002/bit.26558" target="_blank" rel="noopener" title="Link to document DOI" data-ostiid="1432073" data-product-type="Journal Article" data-product-subtype="PM" >https://doi.org/10.1002/bit.26558</a></span></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div class="clearfix"></div> </div> </li> <li> <div class="article item document" itemprop="itemListElement" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/WebPage"><meta itemprop="position" content="4" /><div class="item-info"> <h2 class="title" itemprop="name headline"><a href="/pages/biblio/1631188-enhancing-photosynthetic-production-glycogen-rich-biomass-use-fermentation-feedstock" itemprop="url">Enhancing Photosynthetic Production of Glycogen-Rich Biomass for Use as a Fermentation Feedstock</a></h2> <div class="metadata"> <small class="text-muted" style="text-transform:uppercase;display:block;line-height:2.5em;">Journal Article</small><span class="authors"> <span class="author">Comer, Austin D.</span> ; <span class="author">Abraham, Joshua P.</span> ; <span class="author">Steiner, Alexander J.</span> ; <span class="author">...</span> <span class="text-muted pubdata"> - Frontiers in Energy Research</span> </span> </div> <div class="abstract">Current sources of fermentation feedstocks, i.e., corn, sugar cane, or plant biomass, fall short of demand for liquid transportation fuels and commodity chemicals in the United States. Aquatic phototrophs including cyanobacteria have the potential to supplement the supply of current fermentable feedstocks. In our strategy, cells are engineered to accumulate storage molecules including glycogen, cellulose, and/or lipid oils that can be extracted from harvested biomass and fed to heterotrophic organisms engineered to produce desired chemical products. Here in this manuscript, we examine the production of glycogen in the model cyanobacteria, Synechococcus sp. strain PCC 7002, and subsequent conversion of cyanobacterial<a href='#' onclick='$(this).hide().next().show().next().show();return false;' style='margin-left:10px;'>more »</a><span style='display:none;'> biomass by an engineered Escherichia coli to octanoic acid as a model product. In effort to maximize glycogen production, we explored the deletion of catabolic enzymes and overexpression of GlgC, an enzyme that catalyzes the first committed step toward glycogen synthesis. We found that deletion of glgP increased final glycogen titers when cells were grown in diurnal light. Overexpression of GlgC led to a temporal increase in glycogen content but not in an overall increase in final titer or content. The best strains were grown, harvested, and used to formulate media for growth of E. coli. The cyanobacterial media was able to support the growth of an engineered E. coli and produce octanoic acid at the same titer as common laboratory media.</span><a href='#' onclick='$(this).hide().prev().hide().prev().show();return false;' style='margin-left:10px;display:none;'>« less</a></div><div class="metadata-links small clearfix text-muted" style="margin-top:15px;"> <span class="fa fa-book text-muted" aria-hidden="true"></span> Cited by 8<div class="pure-menu pure-menu-horizontal pull-right" style="width:unset;"> <ul class="pure-menu-list"> <li class="pure-menu-item"><span class="item-info-ftlink"><a class="misc doi-link " href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fenrg.2020.00093" target="_blank" rel="noopener" title="Link to document DOI" data-ostiid="1631188" data-product-type="Journal Article" data-product-subtype="PA" >https://doi.org/10.3389/fenrg.2020.00093</a></span></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div class="clearfix"></div> </div> </li> <li> <div class="article item document" itemprop="itemListElement" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/WebPage"><meta itemprop="position" content="5" /><div class="item-info"> <h2 class="title" itemprop="name headline"><a href="/pages/biblio/1213053-improving-microbial-biogasoline-production-escherichia-coli-using-tolerance-engineering" itemprop="url">Improving microbial biogasoline production in <i>Escherichia coli</i> using tolerance engineering</a></h2> <div class="metadata"> <small class="text-muted" style="text-transform:uppercase;display:block;line-height:2.5em;">Journal Article</small><span class="authors"> <span class="author">Foo, Jee Loon</span> ; <span class="author">Jensen, Heather M.</span> ; <span class="author">Dahl, Robert H.</span> ; <span class="author">...</span> <span class="text-muted pubdata"> - mBio (Online)</span> </span> </div> <div class="abstract">Engineering microbial hosts for the production of fungible fuels requires mitigation of limitations posed on the production capacity. One such limitation arises from the inherent toxicity of solvent-like biofuel compounds to production strains, such as <i>Escherichia coli</i>. Here we show the importance of host engineering for the production of short-chain alcohols by studying the overexpression of genes upregulated in response to exogenous isopentenol. Using systems biology data, we selected 40 genes that were upregulated following isopentenol exposure and subsequently overexpressed them in <i>E. coli</i>. Overexpression of several of these candidates improved tolerance to exogenously added isopentenol. Genes conferring isopentenol tolerance<a href='#' onclick='$(this).hide().next().show().next().show();return false;' style='margin-left:10px;'>more »</a><span style='display:none;'> phenotypes belonged to diverse functional groups, such as oxidative stress response (<i>soxS</i>, <i>fpr</i>, and <i>nrdH</i>), general stress response (<i>metR</i>, <i>yqhD</i>, and <i>gidB</i>), heat shock-related response (<i>ibpA</i>), and transport (<i>mdlB</i>). To determine if these genes could also improve isopentenol production, we coexpressed the tolerance-enhancing genes individually with an isopentenol production pathway. Our data show that expression of 6 of the 8 candidates improved the production of isopentenol in <i>E. coli</i>, with the methionine biosynthesis regulator MetR improving the titer for isopentenol production by 55%. Additionally, expression of MdlB, an ABC transporter, facilitated a 12% improvement in isopentenol production. To our knowledge, MdlB is the first example of a transporter that can be used to improve production of a short-chain alcohol and provides a valuable new avenue for host engineering in biogasoline production.The use of microbial host platforms for the production of bulk commodities, such as chemicals and fuels, is now a focus of many biotechnology efforts. Many of these compounds are inherently toxic to the host microbe, which in turn places a limit on production despite efforts to optimize the bioconversion pathways. In order to achieve economically viable production levels, it is also necessary to engineer production strains with improved tolerance to these compounds. We demonstrate that microbial tolerance engineering using transcriptomics data can also identify targets that improve production. Our results include an exporter and a methionine biosynthesis regulator that improve isopentenol production, providing a starting point to further engineer the host for biogasoline production.</span><a href='#' onclick='$(this).hide().prev().hide().prev().show();return false;' style='margin-left:10px;display:none;'>« less</a></div><div class="metadata-links small clearfix text-muted" style="margin-top:15px;"> <span class="fa fa-book text-muted" aria-hidden="true"></span> Cited by 88<div class="pure-menu pure-menu-horizontal pull-right" style="width:unset;"> <ul class="pure-menu-list"> <li class="pure-menu-item"><span class="item-info-ftlink"><a class="misc doi-link " href="https://doi.org/10.1128/mBio.01932-14" target="_blank" rel="noopener" title="Link to document DOI" data-ostiid="1213053" data-product-type="Journal Article" data-product-subtype="AM" >https://doi.org/10.1128/mBio.01932-14</a></span></li> <li class="pure-menu-item"><span class="item-info-ftlink"><a class="misc fulltext-link " href="/pages/servlets/purl/1213053" title="Link to document media" target="_blank" rel="noopener" data-ostiid="1213053" data-product-type="Journal Article" data-product-subtype="AM" >Full Text Available</a></span></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div class="clearfix"></div> </div> </li> <li> <div class="article item document" itemprop="itemListElement" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/WebPage"><meta itemprop="position" content="8" /><div class="item-info"> <h2 class="title" itemprop="name headline"><a href="/pages/biblio/1604827-vivo-thermodynamic-analysis-glycolysis-clostridium-thermocellum-thermoanaerobacterium-saccharolyticum-using-tracers" itemprop="url"><em>In Vivo</em> Thermodynamic Analysis of Glycolysis in <em>Clostridium thermocellum</em> and <em>Thermoanaerobacterium saccharolyticum</em> Using <sup>13</sup> C and <sup>2</sup> H Tracers</a></h2> <div class="metadata"> <small class="text-muted" style="text-transform:uppercase;display:block;line-height:2.5em;">Journal Article</small><span class="authors"> <span class="author">Jacobson, Tyler B.</span> ; <span class="author">Korosh, Travis K.</span> ; <span class="author">Stevenson, David M.</span> ; <span class="author">...</span> <span class="text-muted pubdata"> - mSystems</span> </span> </div> <div class="abstract">Clostridium thermocellumandThermoanaerobacterium saccharolyticumare thermophilic anaerobic bacteria with complementary metabolic capabilities that utilize distinct glycolytic pathways for the conversion of cellulosic sugars to biofuels. We integrated quantitative metabolomics with <sup>2</sup>H and<sup>13</sup>C metabolic flux analysis to investigate the in vivo reversibility and thermodynamics of the central metabolic networks of these two microbes. We found that the glycolytic pathway in C. thermocellum operates remarkably close to thermodynamic equilibrium, with an overall drop in Gibbs free energy 5-fold lower than that of T. saccharolyticum or anaerobically grownEscherichia coli. The limited thermodynamic driving force of glycolysis in C. thermocellum could be attributed in large part<a href='#' onclick='$(this).hide().next().show().next().show();return false;' style='margin-left:10px;'>more »</a><span style='display:none;'> to the small free energy of the phosphofructokinase reaction producing fructose bisphosphate. The ethanol fermentation pathway was also substantially more reversible in C. thermocellummthan in T. saccharolyticum. These observations help explain the comparatively low ethanol titers of C. thermocellum and suggest engineering interventions that can be used to increase its ethanol productivity and glycolytic rate. In addition to thermodynamic analysis, we used our isotope tracer data to reconstruct the T. saccharolyticum central metabolic network, revealing exclusive use of the Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas (EMP) pathway for glycolysis, a bifurcated tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle, and a sedoheptulose bisphosphate bypass active within the pentose phosphate pathway. Thermodynamics constitutes a key determinant of flux and enzyme efficiency in metabolic networks. Here, we provide new insights into the divergent thermodynamics of the glycolytic pathways of C. thermocellum and T. saccharolyticum, two industrially relevant thermophilic bacteria whose metabolism still is not well understood. We report that while the glycolytic pathway in T. saccharolyticum is as thermodynamically favorable as that found in model organisms, such asE. coliorSaccharomyces cerevisiae, the glycolytic pathway of C. thermocellum operates near equilibrium. The use of a near-equilibrium glycolytic pathway, with potentially increased ATP yield, by this cellulolytic microbe may represent an evolutionary adaptation to growth on cellulose, but it has the drawback of being highly susceptible to product feedback inhibition. The results of this study will facilitate future engineering of high-performance strains capable of transforming cellulosic biomass to biofuels at high yields and titers.</span><a href='#' onclick='$(this).hide().prev().hide().prev().show();return false;' style='margin-left:10px;display:none;'>« less</a></div><div class="metadata-links small clearfix text-muted" style="margin-top:15px;"> <span class="fa fa-book text-muted" aria-hidden="true"></span> Cited by 26<div class="pure-menu pure-menu-horizontal pull-right" style="width:unset;"> <ul class="pure-menu-list"> <li class="pure-menu-item"><span class="item-info-ftlink"><a class="misc doi-link " href="https://doi.org/10.1128/mSystems.00736-19" target="_blank" rel="noopener" title="Link to document DOI" data-ostiid="1604827" data-product-type="Journal Article" data-product-subtype="PA" >https://doi.org/10.1128/mSystems.00736-19</a></span></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div class="clearfix"></div> </div> </li> </ul> </aside> </div> </section> </div> <div class="col-sm-3 order-sm-3"> <ul class="nav nav-stacked"> <li class="active"><a class="tab-nav disabled" data-tab="related" style="color: #636c72 !important; opacity: 1;"><span class="fa fa-angle-right"></span> Similar Records</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </section> </div></div> </div> </div> </section> <footer class="" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;"> <div class="footer-minor"> <div class="container"> <hr class="footer-separator"/> <br/> <div class="col text-center mt-3"> <div class="pure-menu pure-menu-horizontal"> <ul class="pure-menu-list" id="footer-org-menu"> <li class="pure-menu-item"> <a href="https://energy.gov" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> <img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAP///wAAACH5BAEAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" class="sprite sprite-footer-us-doe-min" alt="U.S. Department of Energy" /> </a> </li> <li class="pure-menu-item"> <a href="https://www.energy.gov/science/office-science" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> <img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAP///wAAACH5BAEAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" class="sprite sprite-footer-office-of-science-min" alt="Office of Science" /> </a> </li> <li class="pure-menu-item"> <a href="https://www.osti.gov" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> <img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAP///wAAACH5BAEAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" class="sprite sprite-footer-osti-min" alt="Office of Scientific and Technical Information" /> </a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> <div class="col text-center small" style="margin-top: 0.5em;margin-bottom:2.0rem;"> <div class="row justify-content-center" style="color:white"> <div class="pure-menu pure-menu-horizontal" style='white-space:normal'> <ul class="pure-menu-list"> <li class="pure-menu-item"><a href="https://www.osti.gov/disclaim" class="pure-menu-link" target="_blank" ref="noopener noreferrer"><span class="fa fa-institution"></span> Website Policies <span class="d-none d-sm-inline d-print-none" style="color:#737373;">/ Important Links</span></a></li> <li class="pure-menu-item" style='float:none;'><a href="/pages/contact" class="pure-menu-link"><span class="fa fa-comments-o"></span>Contact Us</a></li> <li class="d-block d-md-none mb-1"></li> <li class="pure-menu-item" style='float:none;'><a target="_blank" title="Vulnerability Disclosure Program" class="pure-menu-link" href="https://doe.responsibledisclosure.com/hc/en-us" rel="noopener noreferrer">Vulnerability Disclosure Program</a></li> <li class="d-block d-lg-none mb-1"></li> <li class="pure-menu-item" style="float:none;"><a href="https://www.facebook.com/ostigov" target="_blank" class="pure-menu-link social ext fa fa-facebook" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span class="sr-only" style="background-color: #fff; color: #333;">Facebook</span></a></li> <li class="pure-menu-item" style="float:none;"><a href="https://twitter.com/OSTIgov" target="_blank" class="pure-menu-link social ext fa fa-twitter" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span class="sr-only" style="background-color: #fff; color: #333;">Twitter</span></a></li> <li class="pure-menu-item" style="float:none;"><a href="https://www.youtube.com/user/ostigov" target="_blank" class="pure-menu-link social ext fa fa-youtube-play" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span class="sr-only" style="background-color: #fff; color: #333;">Youtube</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </footer> <link href="/pages/css/pages.fonts.240327.0205.css" rel="stylesheet"> <script src="/pages/js/pages.240327.0205.js"></script><noscript></noscript> <script defer src="/pages/js/pages.biblio.240327.0205.js"></script><noscript></noscript> <script defer src="/pages/js/lity.js"></script><noscript></noscript> <script async type="text/javascript" src="/pages/js/Universal-Federated-Analytics-Min.js?agency=DOE" id="_fed_an_ua_tag"></script><noscript></noscript> </body> <!-- DOE PAGES v.240327.0205 --> </html>