Review on phase change materials and thermoelectric generators for ocean thermal gradient applications

Saini, Prashant; Osorio, Julian D.

doi:10.1016/j.rser.2025.115851

Review on phase change materials and thermoelectric generators for ocean thermal gradient applications

Journal Article · Wed May 21 00:00:00 EDT 2025 · Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2025.115851· OSTI ID:2567597

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National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), Golden, CO (United States)

Ocean thermal energy has the potential to address the challenge of balancing long-term operation and high-frequency monitoring due to the limited energy storage capacity of batteries for unmanned underwater vehicles (UUVs). Several emerging technologies to power UUV, profiling floats, and other ocean applications, including the thermoelectric generators (TEGs), phase change materials (PCMs), and memory shape alloys have been proposed. However, most of these technologies are still in an early stage of development and have not been deployed on a commercial scale. In this study, we conducted a comprehensive review on TEGs and PCMs to harness ocean thermal gradients. This review is focused on TEGs' and PCMs' characteristics, properties, and progress to address technical limitations to advance towards the deployment in ocean power applications, such as ocean thermal energy-powered UUVs at a commercial scale. First, the paper provides a thorough review of the different PCMs, TEGs, focusing on enhancing their thermophysical properties. Then, based on their technical attributes and the ocean thermal gradient potential in the United States, a selection of PCMs and TEGs is proposed for different locations and seasons. The ocean thermal gradient offers a stable annual storage potential of approximately 1.09 x 10¹⁹ MJ, with about 7.63 x 10¹⁷ MJ being harnessable with an efficiency of 7 %. Despite PCM-based UUVs is one the most promising alternatives for ocean thermal gradient applications, the low heat transfer rates, low energy conversion efficiency (between 0.14 % and 0.6 %), and low energy storage density (around 0.26 Wh/kg) are the main challenges for effective commercial scale applications. This study identifies key PCMs suitable for ocean thermal applications, including organic, inorganic, and eutectic PCMs, with melting enthalpies ranging from 100 to 250 kJ/kg. It also evaluates various TEGs for different oceanic locations and seasonal variations. Recent advancements in integrating PCMs with TEGs, through enhanced materials and innovative designs, have significantly improved energy conversion performance, increasing thermal conductivity by up to 15 times using metal foams and 10 times using nanomaterials. The integration of PCMs and TEGs offers a feasible alternative to power future UUVs, profiling floats, and other ocean power technologies, including aquaculture farming and water desalination.

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Research Organization:: National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), Golden, CO (United States)

Sponsoring Organization:: USDOE Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE), Renewable Power Office. Water Power Technologies Office

Grant/Contract Number:: AC36-08GO28308

OSTI ID:: 2567597

Alternate ID(s):: OSTI ID: 2587219
OSTI ID: 2588762

Report Number(s):: NREL/JA--5700-89229; NREL/JA--5700-96853

Journal Information:: Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Journal Name: Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews Vol. 219; ISSN 1364-0321

Publisher:: Elsevier BVCopyright Statement

Country of Publication:: United States

Language:: English

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13 HYDRO ENERGY
16 TIDAL AND WAVE POWER
30 DIRECT ENERGY CONVERSION
energy harvesting
ocean thermal gradient
phase change material (PCM)
thermoelectric generator (TEG)
unmanned underwater vehicle (UUV)

Review on phase change materials and thermoelectric generators for ocean thermal gradient applications

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