Geobacter sulfurreducens Immobilized Boron-Doped Diamond Electrodes for Uranium(VI) in Water Electrochemical Bioremediation

Acevedo-González, Alexis J.; Rosario-Cruz, Elliott G.; Chacon, Angelica A.; Toranzos, Gary A.; Cabrera, Carlos R.

doi:10.1021/acsomega.5c01151

Title: Geobacter sulfurreducens Immobilized Boron-Doped Diamond Electrodes for Uranium(VI) in Water Electrochemical Bioremediation

Journal Article · Sun Sep 14 00:00:00 UTC 2025 · ACS Omega

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.5c01151 · OSTI ID:2997733

^[1]; Rosario-Cruz, Elliott G. ^[1]; Chacon, Angelica A. ^[2]; Toranzos, Gary A. ^[1];

^[2]

Univ. of Puerto Rico, San Juan, PR (United States)
Univ. of Texas at El Paso, TX (United States)

The proliferation of nuclear science and technology has resulted in an increase in nuclear waste containing uranium, posing significant risks to both human and environmental health. This study proposes the use of Geobacter sulfurreducens (G. sulfurreducens) modified boron-doped diamond electrodes to facilitate the reduction and removal of uranium(VI) from aqueous media. The bioremediation process involves electrochemically immobilizing the bacteria on a boron-doped diamond electrode (BDD). The immobilization process requires applying reduction potentials ranging from −0.40 to −0.70 V (vs Ag/AgCl (3 M NaCl)), with −0.60 V identified as the optimal potential for effective bacterial modification. The uranium source is provided by a 2.0 mM uranyl acetate solution in G. sulfurreducens growth medium. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) reveals a highly uniform layer of uranium on the electrode surface. Energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (EDS) and cyclic voltammetry (CV) studies confirm the presence of uranium in the system. Raman spectroscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) successfully elucidate the reduction process of U(VI) to predominantly U(IV) using a bacteria-electrode coupled system. Additionally, a comparison is made with the electrochemical removal of uranyl ions using the electrodeposition method on unmodified BDD. Results demonstrate the presence of three uranium oxide species (UO₂, UO₃, and U₃O₈) on the BDD electrode after experimentation, in contrast to the G. sulfurreducens/BDD assembly, which achieves the predominant reduction of UO₂²⁺ to UO₂ with a small quantity of UO₃ as the final species. This study highlights the efficient electrochemical removal of uranyl ions from aqueous media at the G. sulfurreducens/BDD interface through chronoamperometry, presenting a promising approach for remediating sites contaminated with radioactive materials. The findings contribute to the exploration of sustainable alternatives for managing nuclear waste, emphasizing the potential of this electrochemical bioremediation strategy.

View Accepted Manuscript (DOE)

Cite

Export

Save

Research Organization:: American Chemical Society (ACS-C), Washington, DC (United States)

Sponsoring Organization:: National Science Foundation (NSF); USDOE National Nuclear Security Administration (NNSA)

Grant/Contract Number:: NA0003980

OSTI ID:: 2997733

Journal Information:: ACS Omega, Journal Name: ACS Omega Journal Issue: 37 Vol. 10; ISSN 2470-1343

Publisher:: American Chemical Society (ACS)Copyright Statement

Country of Publication:: United States

Language:: English

References (77)

Uranium In Situ Electrolytic Deposition with a Reusable Functional Graphene‐Foam Electrode Wang, Chao; Helal, Ahmed S.; Wang, Ziqiang Advanced Materials, Vol. 33, Issue 38 https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202102633	journal	August 2021
Electrochemical characterization ofGeobacter sulfurreducens cells immobilized on graphite paper electrodes Srikanth, Shweta; Marsili, Enrico; Flickinger, Michael C. Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Vol. 99, Issue 5 https://doi.org/10.1002/bit.21671	journal	January 2008
Electrochemical Characterization of the Periplasmic PpcA c‐Cytochrome of Geobacter sulfurreducens Reveals Its Affinity for Uranium Awate, Bhushan P.; Worden, Robert M.; Reguera, Gemma ChemElectroChem, Vol. 10, Issue 9 https://doi.org/10.1002/celc.202200916	journal	April 2023
Laser-induced oxidation of UO ₂ : A Raman study Elorrieta, J. M.; Bonales, L. J.; Naji, M. Journal of Raman Spectroscopy, Vol. 49, Issue 5 https://doi.org/10.1002/jrs.5347	journal	February 2018
Uranium electrodeposition for alpha spectrometric source preparation Dumitru, O. A.; Begy, R. Cs.; Nita, D. C. Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry, Vol. 298, Issue 2 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10967-013-2584-x	journal	July 2013
Geobacter: The Electric Microbe! Efficient Microbial Fuel Cells to Generate Clean, Cheap Electricity Poddar, Sushmita; Khurana, Surbhi Indian Journal of Microbiology, Vol. 51, Issue 2 https://doi.org/10.1007/s12088-011-0180-8	journal	April 2011
Characterisation of uranium oxides by micro-Raman spectroscopy Allen, Geoffrey C.; Butler, Ian S. Journal of Nuclear Materials, Vol. 144, Issue 1-2 https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-3115(87)90274-1	journal	January 1987
Electrochemical redox mechanism of uranium in acidic perchlorate solutions Sipos, L.; Jeftić, L. J.; Branica, M. Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry and Interfacial Electrochemistry, Vol. 32, Issue 1 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-0728(71)80233-4	journal	August 1971
Raman spectra of stoichiometric and hyperstoichiometric uranium dioxide Manara, Dario; Renker, Burkhard Journal of Nuclear Materials, Vol. 321, Issue 2-3 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-3115(03)00248-4	journal	September 2003
A review of the oxidation of uranium dioxide at temperatures below 400°C McEachern, R. J.; Taylor, P. Journal of Nuclear Materials, Vol. 254, Issue 2-3 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-3115(97)00343-7	journal	April 1998
Resonance Raman excitation profile for uranyl acetate in dimethyl sulfoxide Soga, Takeshi; Ohwada, Ken Spectrochimica Acta Part A: Molecular and Biomolecular Spectroscopy, Vol. 55, Issue 7-8 https://doi.org/10.1016/S1386-1425(98)00306-0	journal	July 1999
Uranium in natural waters and the environment: Distribution, speciation and impact Smedley, P. L.; Kinniburgh, D. G. Applied Geochemistry, Vol. 148 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2022.105534	journal	January 2023
Biochemical characterization of purified OmcS, a c-type cytochrome required for insoluble Fe(III) reduction in Geobacter sulfurreducens Qian, Xinlei; Mester, Tünde; Morgado, Leonor Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Bioenergetics, Vol. 1807, Issue 4 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbabio.2011.01.003	journal	April 2011
GSU1771 regulates extracellular electron transfer and electroactive biofilm formation in Geobacter sulfurreducens: Genetic and electrochemical characterization Hernández-Eligio, Alberto; Huerta-Miranda, Guillermo Antonio; Martínez-Bahena, Sergio Bioelectrochemistry, Vol. 145 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bioelechem.2022.108101	journal	June 2022
Geobacter sulfurreducens electroactive biofilms on Fe2O3/FTO support-electrodes for developing a sodium acetate electrochemical biosensor Huerta-Miranda, G. A.; Rodríguez-Torres, L. M.; Martínez-García, A. L. Biosensors and Bioelectronics: X, Vol. 14 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biosx.2023.100370	journal	September 2023
The reactions of water vapour on the surfaces of stoichiometric and reduced uranium dioxide: A high resolution XPS study Senanayake, S. D.; Waterhouse, G. I. N.; Chan, A. S. Y. Catalysis Today, Vol. 120, Issue 2 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cattod.2006.07.040	journal	February 2007
Efficient uranium electrochemical deposition with a functional phytic Acid-Doped Polyaniline/Graphite sheet electrode by Adsorption-electrodeposition strategy Huang, Mengnan; Xie, Lisha; Wang, Yuejiao Chemical Engineering Journal, Vol. 457 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2022.141221	journal	February 2023
Bioremediation of radioactive waste: radionuclide–microbe interactions in laboratory and field-scale studies Lloyd, Jonathan R.; Renshaw, Joanna C. Current Opinion in Biotechnology, Vol. 16, Issue 3 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copbio.2005.04.012	journal	June 2005
Electrochemical reduction of oxygen catalyzed by a wide range of bacteria including Gram-positive Cournet, Amandine; Délia, Marie-Line; Bergel, Alain Electrochemistry Communications, Vol. 12, Issue 4 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.elecom.2010.01.026	journal	April 2010
Electrochemical activity of Geobacter sulfurreducens biofilms on stainless steel anodes Dumas, Claire; Basseguy, Régine; Bergel, Alain Electrochimica Acta, Vol. 53, Issue 16 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2008.02.056	journal	June 2008
Characterizing the relationship between hyperstoichiometry, defect structure and local corrosion kinetics of uranium dioxide He, Heming; Qin, Z.; Shoesmith, D. W. Electrochimica Acta, Vol. 56, Issue 1 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2010.09.064	journal	December 2010
Direct Electrodeposition of UO2 from Uranyl Bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide Dissolved in 1-Ethyl-3-methylimidazolium Bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide Room Temperature Ionic Liquid System Freiderich, John W.; Wanigasekara, Eranda; Sun, Xiao-Guang Electrochimica Acta, Vol. 115 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2013.10.187	journal	January 2014
Emerging health risks and underlying toxicological mechanisms of uranium contamination: Lessons from the past two decades Ma, Minghao; Wang, Ruixia; Xu, Lining Environment International, Vol. 145 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2020.106107	journal	December 2020
“Fixing” the nuclear waste problem? The new political economy of spent fuel management in the United States Bell, Marissa Z.; Macfarlane, Allison Energy Research & Social Science, Vol. 91 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2022.102728	journal	September 2022
XPS spectra of uranyl minerals and synthetic uranyl compounds. I: The U 4f spectrum Schindler, M.; Hawthorne, F. C.; Freund, M. S. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, Vol. 73, Issue 9 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2008.10.042	journal	May 2009
Uranium sequestration in sediment at an iron-rich contaminated site at Oak Ridge, Tennessee via. bioreduction followed by reoxidation Li, Peng-Song; Wu, Wei-Min; Phillips, Debra H. Journal of Environmental Sciences, Vol. 85 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jes.2019.05.028	journal	November 2019
Characterization and remediation of soils contaminated with uranium Gavrilescu, Maria; Pavel, Lucian Vasile; Cretescu, Igor Journal of Hazardous Materials, Vol. 163, Issue 2-3 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2008.07.103	journal	April 2009
Additional complexity in the Raman spectra of U3O8 Miskowiec, A.; Niedziela, J. L.; Spano, T. L. Journal of Nuclear Materials, Vol. 527 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnucmat.2019.151790	journal	December 2019
Monitoring the gradual change in oxidation state during surface oxidation or reduction of uranium oxides by photoemission spectroscopy of the 5f states Jamal, Ghada El; Gouder, Thomas; Eloirdi, Rachel Journal of Nuclear Materials, Vol. 560 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnucmat.2021.153504	journal	March 2022
Identification of the chemical forms of uranium compounds in micrometer-size particles by means of micro-Raman spectrometry and scanning electron microscope Pointurier, F.; Marie, O. Spectrochimica Acta Part B: Atomic Spectroscopy, Vol. 65, Issue 9-10 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sab.2010.06.008	journal	September 2010
Surface reactions of uranium oxide powder, thin films and single crystals Idriss, H. Surface Science Reports, Vol. 65, Issue 3 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.surfrep.2010.01.001	journal	March 2010
Influence of Uranium Concentration and pH on U-Phosphate Biomineralization by Caulobacter OR37 Morrison, Keith D.; Zavarin, Mavrik; Kersting, Annie B. Environmental Science & Technology, Vol. 55, Issue 3 https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.0c05437	journal	January 2021
From Adsorption to Precipitation of U(VI): What is the Role of pH and Natural Organic Matter? Velasco, Carmen A.; Brearley, Adrian J.; Gonzalez-Estrella, Jorge Environmental Science & Technology, Vol. 55, Issue 23 https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.1c05429	journal	November 2021
Nitrate-Stimulated Release of Naturally Occurring Sedimentary Uranium Westrop, Jeffrey P.; Yadav, Pooja; Nolan, Pj Environmental Science & Technology, Vol. 57, Issue 10 https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.2c07683	journal	February 2023
Removal of Trace Uranium from Groundwaters Using Membrane Capacitive Deionization Desalination for Potable Supply in Remote Communities: Bench, Pilot, and Field Scale Investigations Bales, Clare; Kinsela, Andrew S.; Miller, Christopher Environmental Science & Technology, Vol. 57, Issue 30 https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.3c03477	journal	July 2023
Removal of Aqueous Uranyl and Arsenate Mixtures after Reaction with Limestone, PO₄^3–, and Ca²⁺ Meza, Isabel; Hua, Han; Gagnon, Kaelin Environmental Science & Technology, Vol. 57, Issue 49 https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.3c03809	journal	November 2023
Chelating Effect of Siderophore Desferrioxamine-B on Uranyl Biomineralization Mediated by Shewanella putrefaciens Lu, Xiaojing; Zhang, Yang-Yang; Cheng, Wencai Environmental Science & Technology, Vol. 58, Issue 8 https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.3c05753	journal	February 2024
Elucidating Multiple Electron-Transfer Pathways for Metavanadate Bioreduction by Actinomycetic Streptomyces microflavus Wang, Shixiang; Zhang, Baogang; Fei, Yangmei Environmental Science & Technology, Vol. 57, Issue 48 https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.3c07288	journal	November 2023
Structural and Optical Properties of Phase-Pure UO ₂ , α-U ₃ O ₈ , and α-UO ₃ Epitaxial Thin Films Grown by Pulsed Laser Deposition Enriquez, Erik; Wang, Gaoxue; Sharma, Yogesh ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, Vol. 12, Issue 31 https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.0c08635	journal	July 2020
High-Efficiency Photoenhanced Extraction of Uranium from Natural Seawater by Olefin-Linked Covalent Organic Frameworks Cui, Wei-Rong; Zhang, Cheng-Rong; Xu, Rui-Han ACS ES&T Water, Vol. 1, Issue 2 https://doi.org/10.1021/acsestwater.0c00176	journal	November 2020
Engineered Sorbents for Selective Uranium Sequestration from Seawater Singh, Bhupendra Kumar; Asim, Muhammad; Salkenova, Zarina ACS ES&T Water, Vol. 4, Issue 2 https://doi.org/10.1021/acsestwater.3c00516	journal	January 2024
Stable Uranium Oxide Under Atmospheric Conditions: An Electroplating Technique for U Film Fabrication at Boron-Doped Diamond Electrodes Peña-Duarte, Armando; Acevedo-González, Alexis J.; Lagle, Richard M. ACS Materials Au, Vol. 3, Issue 4 https://doi.org/10.1021/acsmaterialsau.3c00007	journal	May 2023
Bioremediation of uranium contamination with enzymatic uranium reduction Lovley, Derek R.; Phillips, Elizabeth J. P. Environmental Science & Technology, Vol. 26, Issue 11 https://doi.org/10.1021/es00035a023	journal	November 1992
Remediation and Recovery of Uranium from Contaminated Subsurface Environments with Electrodes Gregory, Kelvin B.; Lovley, Derek R. Environmental Science & Technology, Vol. 39, Issue 22, p. 8943-8947 https://doi.org/10.1021/es050457e	journal	November 2005
Electricity Generation by Geobacter sulfurreducens Attached to Gold Electrodes Richter, Hanno; McCarthy, Kevin; Nevin, Kelly P. Langmuir, Vol. 24, Issue 8 https://doi.org/10.1021/la703469y	journal	April 2008
Microbial reduction of uranium Lovley, Derek R.; Phillips, Elizabeth J. P.; Gorby, Yuri A. Nature, Vol. 350, Issue 6317 https://doi.org/10.1038/350413a0	journal	April 1991
Structure of Geobacter pili reveals secretory rather than nanowire behaviour Gu, Yangqi; Srikanth, Vishok; Salazar-Morales, Aldo I. Nature, Vol. 597, Issue 7876 https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-03857-w	journal	September 2021
Direct observation of pure pentavalent uranium in U2O5 thin films by high resolution photoemission spectroscopy Gouder, T.; Eloirdi, R.; Caciuffo, R. Scientific Reports, Vol. 8, Issue 1 https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-26594-z	journal	May 2018
Charge transport in films of Geobacter sulfurreducens on graphite electrodes as a function of film thickness Jana, Partha Sarathi; Katuri, Krishna; Kavanagh, Paul Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys., Vol. 16, Issue 19 https://doi.org/10.1039/C4CP01023J	journal	January 2014
A practical guide to using boron doped diamond in electrochemical research Macpherson, Julie V. Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics, Vol. 17, Issue 5 https://doi.org/10.1039/C4CP04022H	journal	January 2015
Polycrystalline boron-doped diamond electrodes for electrocatalytic and electrosynthetic applications Ivandini, Tribidasari A.; Einaga, Yasuaki Chemical Communications, Vol. 53, Issue 8 https://doi.org/10.1039/C6CC08681K	journal	January 2017
Boron-doped diamond: current progress and challenges in view of electroanalytical applications Muzyka, Kateryna; Sun, Jianrui; Fereja, Tadesse Haile Analytical Methods, Vol. 11, Issue 4 https://doi.org/10.1039/C8AY02197J	journal	January 2019
High-energy resolution X-ray spectroscopy at actinide M_4,5 and ligand K edges: what we know, what we want to know, and what we can know Kvashnina, Kristina O.; Butorin, Sergei M. Chemical Communications, Vol. 58, Issue 3 https://doi.org/10.1039/D1CC04851A	journal	January 2022
A microfluidic electrochemical cell for studying the corrosion of uranium dioxide (UO₂) Yao, Jennifer; Lahiri, Nabajit; Tripathi, Shalini RSC Advances, Vol. 12, Issue 30 https://doi.org/10.1039/D2RA02501A	journal	January 2022
Cyclic voltammetry of biofilms of wild type and mutant Geobacter sulfurreducens on fuel cell anodes indicates possible roles of OmcB, OmcZ, type IV pili, and protons in extracellular electron transfer Richter, Hanno; Nevin, Kelly P.; Jia, Hongfei Energy & Environmental Science, Vol. 2, Issue 5 https://doi.org/10.1039/b816647a	journal	January 2009
Boron-doped diamond electrode: synthesis, characterization, functionalization and analytical applications Luong, John H. T.; Male, Keith B.; Glennon, Jeremy D. The Analyst, Vol. 134, Issue 10, p. 1965-1979 https://doi.org/10.1039/b910206j	journal	January 2009
Opportunities behind the unusual ability of geobacter sulfurreducens for exocellular respiration and electricity production Esteve-Núñez, Abraham; Busalmen, Juan Pablo; Berná, Antonio Energy & Environmental Science, Vol. 4, Issue 6 https://doi.org/10.1039/c1ee01067k	journal	January 2011
Engineering Geobacter sulfurreducens to produce a highly cohesive conductive matrix with enhanced capacity for current production Leang, Ching; Malvankar, Nikhil S.; Franks, Ashley E. Energy & Environmental Science, Vol. 6, Issue 6 https://doi.org/10.1039/c3ee40441b	journal	January 2013
Extracellular reduction of uranium via Geobacter conductive pili as a protective cellular mechanism Cologgi, D. L.; Lampa-Pastirk, S.; Speers, A. M. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, Vol. 108, Issue 37, p. 15248-15252 https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1108616108	journal	September 2011
Kinetics of Reduction of Uranium(VI) to Uranium(IV) at Titanium Electrode in Nitric Acid and Hydrazine Media Kim, Kwang-Wook; Kim, Jong-Duk; Aoyagi, Hisao Journal of Nuclear Science and Technology, Vol. 31, Issue 4 https://doi.org/10.1080/18811248.1994.9735158	journal	April 1994
Conversion Reactions of Uranyl Ions to Uranium Oxides in Supercritical Ethanol Sato, Miki; Fazekas, Zsolt; Harada, Masayuki Journal of Nuclear Science and Technology, Vol. 40, Issue 5 https://doi.org/10.1080/18811248.2003.9715364	journal	May 2003
Raman spectroscopy of diamond and doped diamond Prawer, Steven; Nemanich, Robert J. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences, Vol. 362, Issue 1824 https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2004.1451	journal	September 2004
Chemical State of Complex Uranium Oxides Kvashnina, K. O.; Butorin, S. M.; Martin, P. Physical Review Letters, Vol. 111, Issue 25 https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.111.253002	journal	December 2013
Bioremediation: a genuine technology to remediate radionuclides from the environment: Bioremediation of radionuclides Prakash, Dhan; Gabani, Prashant; Chandel, Anuj K. Microbial Biotechnology, Vol. 6, Issue 4 https://doi.org/10.1111/1751-7915.12059	journal	April 2013
Enhancing electrical outputs of the fuel cells with Geobacter sulferreducens by overexpressing nanowire proteins Wang, Zhigao; Hu, Yidan; Dong, Yiran Microbial Biotechnology, Vol. 16, Issue 3 https://doi.org/10.1111/1751-7915.14128	journal	August 2022
Graphite electrodes as electron donors for anaerobic respiration Gregory, Kelvin B.; Bond, Daniel R.; Lovley, Derek R. Environmental Microbiology, Vol. 6, Issue 6, p. 596-604 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1462-2920.2004.00593.x	journal	June 2004
100 years of microbial electricity production: three concepts for the future Arends, Jan B. A.; Verstraete, Willy Microbial Biotechnology, Vol. 5, Issue 3 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-7915.2011.00302.x	journal	September 2011
Powering microbes with electricity: direct electron transfer from electrodes to microbes: Feeding Microbes Electricity Lovley, Derek R. Environmental Microbiology Reports, Vol. 3, Issue 1 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1758-2229.2010.00211.x	journal	September 2010
Uranium and arsenic unregulated water issues on Navajo lands Ingram, Jani C.; Jones, Lindsey; Credo, Jonathan Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology A, Vol. 38, Issue 3 https://doi.org/10.1116/1.5142283	journal	March 2020
Enhanced Uranium Immobilization and Reduction by Geobacter sulfurreducens Biofilms Cologgi, Dena L.; Speers, Allison M.; Bullard, Blair A. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, Vol. 80, Issue 21 https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.02289-14	journal	August 2014
Electricity Production by Geobacter sulfurreducens Attached to Electrodes Bond, D. R.; Lovley, D. R. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, Vol. 69, Issue 3 https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.69.3.1548-1555.2003	journal	March 2003
Geobacter sulfurreducens sp. nov., a hydrogen- and acetate-oxidizing dissimilatory metal-reducing microorganism. Caccavo, F.; Lonergan, D. J.; Lovley, D. R. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, Vol. 60, Issue 10 https://doi.org/10.1128/aem.60.10.3752-3759.1994	journal	January 1994
Uranium Reduction Wall, Judy D.; Krumholz, Lee R. Annual Review of Microbiology, Vol. 60, Issue 1 https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.micro.59.030804.121357	journal	October 2006
Importance of c-Type cytochromes for U(VI) reduction by Geobacter sulfurreducens Shelobolina, Evgenya S.; Coppi, Maddalena V.; Korenevsky, Anton A. BMC Microbiology, Vol. 7, Issue 1 https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2180-7-16	journal	January 2007
Uranium Remediation by Ion Exchange and Sorption Methods: A Critical Review Rosenberg, Edward; Pinson, Glenn; Tsosie, Ranalda Johnson Matthey Technology Review, Vol. 60, Issue 1 https://doi.org/10.1595/205651316X690178	journal	January 2016
The World Nuclear Waste Report 2019 Focus Europe Besnard, Manon; Buser, Marcos; Fairlie, Ian Heinrich Böll Foundation https://doi.org/10.25530/03552.42	text	January 2019
Geobacter Protein Nanowires Lovley, Derek R.; Walker, David J. F. Frontiers in Microbiology, Vol. 10 https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2019.02078	journal	September 2019