New Perspectives on the Exoplanet Radius Gap from a Mathematica Tool and Visualized Water Equation of State

Zeng, Li; Jacobsen, Stein B.; Hyung, Eugenia; Levi, Amit; Nava, Chantanelle; Kirk, James; Piaulet, Caroline; Lacedelli, Gaia; Sasselov, Dimitar D.; Petaev, Michail I.; Stewart, Sarah T.; Alam, Munazza K.; López-Morales, Mercedes; Damasso, Mario; Latham, David W.

doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac3137

Title: New Perspectives on the Exoplanet Radius Gap from a Mathematica Tool and Visualized Water Equation of State

Journal Article · 27 December 2021 · The Astrophysical Journal

DOI: https://doi.org/10.3847/1538-4357/ac3137 · OSTI ID:1981237

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Harvard Univ., Cambridge, MA (United States); Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, Cambridge, MA (United States); Harvard Univ., Cambridge, MA (United States); Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, Cambridge, MA (United States)
Harvard Univ., Cambridge, MA (United States)
Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, Cambridge, MA (United States)
Univ. of Montreal, QC (Canada)
Univ. degli Studi di Padova (Italy); Istituto Nazionale di Astrofisica (INAF) (Italy)
Harvard Univ., Cambridge, MA (United States); Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, Cambridge, MA (United States)
Univ. of California, Davis, CA (United States)
Istituto Nazionale di Astrofisica (INAF) (Italy)

Recent astronomical observations obtained with the Kepler and TESS missions and their related ground-based follow-ups revealed an abundance of exoplanets with a size intermediate between Earth and Neptune (1 R_⊕ ≤ R ≤ 4 R_⊕). A low occurrence rate of planets has been identified at around twice the size of Earth (2 × R_⊕), known as the exoplanet radius gap or radius valley. We explore the geometry of this gap in the mass–radius diagram, with the help of a Mathematica plotting tool developed with the capability of manipulating exoplanet data in multidimensional parameter space, and with the help of visualized water equations of state in the temperature–density (T–ρ) graph and the entropy–pressure (s–P) graph. We show that the radius valley can be explained by a compositional difference between smaller, predominantly rocky planets (<2 × R_⊕) and larger planets (>2 × R_⊕) that exhibit greater compositional diversity including cosmic ices (water, ammonia, methane, etc.) and gaseous envelopes. In particular, among the larger planets (>2 × R_⊕), when viewed from the perspective of planet equilibrium temperature (T_eq), the hot ones (T_eq ≳ 900 K) are consistent with ice-dominated composition without significant gaseous envelopes, while the cold ones (T_eq ≲ 900 K) have more diverse compositions, including various amounts of gaseous envelopes.

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Research Organization:: Harvard Univ., Cambridge, MA (United States)

Sponsoring Organization:: USDOE National Nuclear Security Administration (NNSA)

Grant/Contract Number:: NA0003904

OSTI ID:: 1981237

Journal Information:: The Astrophysical Journal, Journal Name: The Astrophysical Journal Journal Issue: 2 Vol. 923; ISSN 0004-637X

Publisher:: IOP PublishingCopyright Statement

Country of Publication:: United States

Language:: English

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Mass and Mass Scalings of Super-Earths Wu, Yanqin The Astrophysical Journal, Vol. 874, Issue 1 https://doi.org/10.3847/1538-4357/ab06f8	journal	March 2019
A Spectroscopic Analysis of the California-Kepler Survey Sample. I. Stellar Parameters, Planetary Radii, and a Slope in the Radius Gap Martinez, Cintia F.; Cunha, Katia; Ghezzi, Luan The Astrophysical Journal, Vol. 875, Issue 1 https://doi.org/10.3847/1538-4357/ab0d93	journal	April 2019
The Sub-Neptune Desert and Its Dependence on Stellar Type: Controlled by Lifetime X-Ray Irradiation McDonald, George D.; Kreidberg, Laura; Lopez, Eric The Astrophysical Journal, Vol. 876, Issue 1 https://doi.org/10.3847/1538-4357/ab1095	journal	April 2019
The Equation of State of MH-III: A Possible Deep CH ₄ Reservoir in Titan, Super-Titan Exoplanets, and Moons Levi, A.; Cohen, R. E. The Astrophysical Journal, Vol. 882, Issue 1 https://doi.org/10.3847/1538-4357/ab2f76	journal	September 2019
Atmosphere Origins for Exoplanet Sub-Neptunes Kite, Edwin S.; Fegley Jr., Bruce; Schaefer, Laura The Astrophysical Journal, Vol. 891, Issue 2 https://doi.org/10.3847/1538-4357/ab6ffb	journal	March 2020
Primordial Radius Gap and Potentially Broad Core Mass Distributions of Super-Earths and Sub-Neptunes Lee, Eve J.; Connors, Nicholas J. The Astrophysical Journal, Vol. 908, Issue 1 https://doi.org/10.3847/1538-4357/abd6c7	journal	February 2021
Planetary Candidates Observed by Kepler . VIII. A Fully Automated Catalog with Measured Completeness and Reliability Based on Data Release 25 Thompson, Susan E.; Coughlin, Jeffrey L.; Hoffman, Kelsey The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series, Vol. 235, Issue 2 https://doi.org/10.3847/1538-4365/aab4f9	journal	April 2018
Scaling K2. I. Revised Parameters for 222,088 K2 Stars and a K2 Planet Radius Valley at 1.9 R _⊕ Hardegree-Ullman, Kevin K.; Zink, Jon K.; Christiansen, Jessie L. The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series, Vol. 247, Issue 1 https://doi.org/10.3847/1538-4365/ab7230	journal	March 2020
Superabundance of Exoplanet Sub-Neptunes Explained by Fugacity Crisis Kite, Edwin S.; Fegley Jr., Bruce; Schaefer, Laura The Astrophysical Journal Letters, Vol. 887, Issue 2, p. L33 https://doi.org/10.3847/2041-8213/ab59d9	journal	December 2019
Irradiated Ocean Planets Bridge Super-Earth and Sub-Neptune Populations Mousis, Olivier; Deleuil, Magali; Aguichine, Artyom The Astrophysical Journal, Vol. 896, Issue 2 https://doi.org/10.3847/2041-8213/ab9530	journal	June 2020
Bridging the Planet Radius Valley: Stellar Clustering as a Key Driver for Turning Sub-Neptunes into Super-Earths Kruijssen, J. M. Diederik; Longmore, Steven N.; Chevance, Mélanie The Astrophysical Journal, Vol. 905, Issue 2 https://doi.org/10.3847/2041-8213/abccc3	journal	December 2020
Water on Hot Rocky Exoplanets Kite, Edwin S.; Schaefer, Laura The Astrophysical Journal Letters, Vol. 909, Issue 2 https://doi.org/10.3847/2041-8213/abe7dc	journal	March 2021
Exoplanet Radius Gap Dependence on Host Star Type Zeng, Li; Jacobsen, Stein B.; Sasselov, Dimitar D. Research Notes of the AAS, Vol. 1, Issue 1 https://doi.org/10.3847/2515-5172/aa9ed9	journal	December 2017

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