Non-local contribution from small scales in galaxy–galaxy lensing: comparison of mitigation schemes
Abstract
Recent cosmological analyses with large-scale structure and weak lensing measurements, usually referred to as 3 × 2pt, had to discard a lot of signal to noise from small scales due to our inability to accurately model non-linearities and baryonic effects. Galaxy–galaxy lensing, or the position–shear correlation between lens and source galaxies, is one of the three two-point correlation functions that are included in such analyses, usually estimated with the mean tangential shear. However, tangential shear measurements at a given angular scale θ or physical scale R carry information from all scales below that, forcing the scale cuts applied in real data to be significantly larger than the scale at which theoretical uncertainties become problematic. Recently, there have been a few independent efforts that aim to mitigate the non-locality of the galaxy–galaxy lensing signal. Here, for this study, we perform a comparison of the different methods, including the Y-transformation, the point-mass marginalization methodology, and the annular differential surface density statistic. We do the comparison at the cosmological constraints level in a combined galaxy clustering and galaxy–galaxy lensing analysis. In this study, we find that all the estimators yield equivalent cosmological results assuming a simulated Rubin Observatory Legacy Survey of Space and Time (LSST)more »
- Authors:
-
more »
- (
- Publication Date:
- Research Org.:
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory (SLAC), Menlo Park, CA (United States); Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL), Berkeley, CA (United States); Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory (FNAL), Batavia, IL (United States); Argonne National Laboratory (ANL), Argonne, IL (United States); Brookhaven National Laboratory (BNL), Upton, NY (United States); Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL), Oak Ridge, TN (United States)
- Sponsoring Org.:
- USDOE Office of Science (SC), High Energy Physics (HEP); National Science Foundation (NSF)
- Contributing Org.:
- DES Collaboration
- OSTI Identifier:
- 1970073
- Alternate Identifier(s):
- OSTI ID: 1906091; OSTI ID: 1997711; OSTI ID: 2305688
- Report Number(s):
- FERMILAB-PUB-22-909-PPD; arXiv:2212.03734
Journal ID: ISSN 0035-8711
- Grant/Contract Number:
- AC02-07CH11359; AST-1138766; AST-1536171; AC05-00OR22725; AC02-05CH11231
- Resource Type:
- Published Article
- Journal Name:
- Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
- Additional Journal Information:
- Journal Name: Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society Journal Volume: 522 Journal Issue: 1; Journal ID: ISSN 0035-8711
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- Country of Publication:
- United Kingdom
- Language:
- English
- Subject:
- 79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS; cosmological parameters; large-scale structure of the universe; theory of cosmology; weak gravitational lensing
Citation Formats
Prat, J., Zacharegkas, G., Park, Y., MacCrann, N., Switzer, E. R., Pandey, S., Chang, C., Blazek, J., Miquel, R., Alarcon, A., Alves, O., Amon, A., Andrade-Oliveira, F., Bechtol, K., Becker, M. R., Bernstein, G. M., Chen, R., Choi, A., Camacho, H., Campos, A., Rosell, A. Carnero, Carrasco Kind, M., Cawthon, R., Cordero, J., Crocce, M., Davis, C., DeRose, J., Diehl, H. T., Dodelson, S., Doux, C., Drlica-Wagner, A., Eckert, K., Eifler, T. F., Elvin-Poole, J., Everett, S., Fang, X., Ferté, A., Fosalba, P., Friedrich, O., Gatti, M., Giannini, G., Gruen, D., Gruendl, R. A., Harrison, I., Hartley, W. G., Herner, K., Huang, H., Huff, E. M., Jarvis, M., Krause, E., Kuropatkin, N., Leget, P-F, McCullough, J., Myles, J., Navarro-Alsina, A., Porredon, A., Raveri, M., Rollins, R. P., Roodman, A., Rosenfeld, R., Ross, A. J., Rykoff, E. S., Sánchez, C., Sanchez, J., Secco, L. F., Sevilla-Noarbe, I., Sheldon, E., Shin, T., Troxel, M. A., Tutusaus, I., Varga, T. N., Yanny, B., Yin, B., Zhang, Y., Zuntz, J., Aguena, M., Allam, S., Annis, J., Bacon, D., Bertin, E., Bocquet, S., Brooks, D., Burke, D. L., Carretero, J., Costanzi, M., Pereira, M. E. S., De Vicente, J., Desai, S., Ferrero, I., Flaugher, B., Gerdes, D. W., Gutierrez, G., Hinton, S. R., Hollowood, D. L., Honscheid, K., James, D. J., Lima, M., Menanteau, F., Mena-Fernández, J., Palmese, A., Paterno, M., Paz-Chinchón, F., Pieres, A., Plazas Malagón, A. A., Rodriguez-Monroy, M., Sanchez, E., Schubnell, M., Smith, M., Soares-Santos, M., Suchyta, E., Swanson, M. E. C., Tarle, G., To, C., Weaverdyck, N., Weller, J., and The DES Collaboration). Non-local contribution from small scales in galaxy–galaxy lensing: comparison of mitigation schemes. United Kingdom: N. p., 2023.
Web. doi:10.1093/mnras/stad847.
Prat, J., Zacharegkas, G., Park, Y., MacCrann, N., Switzer, E. R., Pandey, S., Chang, C., Blazek, J., Miquel, R., Alarcon, A., Alves, O., Amon, A., Andrade-Oliveira, F., Bechtol, K., Becker, M. R., Bernstein, G. M., Chen, R., Choi, A., Camacho, H., Campos, A., Rosell, A. Carnero, Carrasco Kind, M., Cawthon, R., Cordero, J., Crocce, M., Davis, C., DeRose, J., Diehl, H. T., Dodelson, S., Doux, C., Drlica-Wagner, A., Eckert, K., Eifler, T. F., Elvin-Poole, J., Everett, S., Fang, X., Ferté, A., Fosalba, P., Friedrich, O., Gatti, M., Giannini, G., Gruen, D., Gruendl, R. A., Harrison, I., Hartley, W. G., Herner, K., Huang, H., Huff, E. M., Jarvis, M., Krause, E., Kuropatkin, N., Leget, P-F, McCullough, J., Myles, J., Navarro-Alsina, A., Porredon, A., Raveri, M., Rollins, R. P., Roodman, A., Rosenfeld, R., Ross, A. J., Rykoff, E. S., Sánchez, C., Sanchez, J., Secco, L. F., Sevilla-Noarbe, I., Sheldon, E., Shin, T., Troxel, M. A., Tutusaus, I., Varga, T. N., Yanny, B., Yin, B., Zhang, Y., Zuntz, J., Aguena, M., Allam, S., Annis, J., Bacon, D., Bertin, E., Bocquet, S., Brooks, D., Burke, D. L., Carretero, J., Costanzi, M., Pereira, M. E. S., De Vicente, J., Desai, S., Ferrero, I., Flaugher, B., Gerdes, D. W., Gutierrez, G., Hinton, S. R., Hollowood, D. L., Honscheid, K., James, D. J., Lima, M., Menanteau, F., Mena-Fernández, J., Palmese, A., Paterno, M., Paz-Chinchón, F., Pieres, A., Plazas Malagón, A. A., Rodriguez-Monroy, M., Sanchez, E., Schubnell, M., Smith, M., Soares-Santos, M., Suchyta, E., Swanson, M. E. C., Tarle, G., To, C., Weaverdyck, N., Weller, J., & The DES Collaboration). Non-local contribution from small scales in galaxy–galaxy lensing: comparison of mitigation schemes. United Kingdom. https://doi.org/10.1093/mnras/stad847
Prat, J., Zacharegkas, G., Park, Y., MacCrann, N., Switzer, E. R., Pandey, S., Chang, C., Blazek, J., Miquel, R., Alarcon, A., Alves, O., Amon, A., Andrade-Oliveira, F., Bechtol, K., Becker, M. R., Bernstein, G. M., Chen, R., Choi, A., Camacho, H., Campos, A., Rosell, A. Carnero, Carrasco Kind, M., Cawthon, R., Cordero, J., Crocce, M., Davis, C., DeRose, J., Diehl, H. T., Dodelson, S., Doux, C., Drlica-Wagner, A., Eckert, K., Eifler, T. F., Elvin-Poole, J., Everett, S., Fang, X., Ferté, A., Fosalba, P., Friedrich, O., Gatti, M., Giannini, G., Gruen, D., Gruendl, R. A., Harrison, I., Hartley, W. G., Herner, K., Huang, H., Huff, E. M., Jarvis, M., Krause, E., Kuropatkin, N., Leget, P-F, McCullough, J., Myles, J., Navarro-Alsina, A., Porredon, A., Raveri, M., Rollins, R. P., Roodman, A., Rosenfeld, R., Ross, A. J., Rykoff, E. S., Sánchez, C., Sanchez, J., Secco, L. F., Sevilla-Noarbe, I., Sheldon, E., Shin, T., Troxel, M. A., Tutusaus, I., Varga, T. N., Yanny, B., Yin, B., Zhang, Y., Zuntz, J., Aguena, M., Allam, S., Annis, J., Bacon, D., Bertin, E., Bocquet, S., Brooks, D., Burke, D. L., Carretero, J., Costanzi, M., Pereira, M. E. S., De Vicente, J., Desai, S., Ferrero, I., Flaugher, B., Gerdes, D. W., Gutierrez, G., Hinton, S. R., Hollowood, D. L., Honscheid, K., James, D. J., Lima, M., Menanteau, F., Mena-Fernández, J., Palmese, A., Paterno, M., Paz-Chinchón, F., Pieres, A., Plazas Malagón, A. A., Rodriguez-Monroy, M., Sanchez, E., Schubnell, M., Smith, M., Soares-Santos, M., Suchyta, E., Swanson, M. E. C., Tarle, G., To, C., Weaverdyck, N., Weller, J., and The DES Collaboration). Tue .
"Non-local contribution from small scales in galaxy–galaxy lensing: comparison of mitigation schemes". United Kingdom. https://doi.org/10.1093/mnras/stad847.
@article{osti_1970073,
title = {Non-local contribution from small scales in galaxy–galaxy lensing: comparison of mitigation schemes},
author = {Prat, J. and Zacharegkas, G. and Park, Y. and MacCrann, N. and Switzer, E. R. and Pandey, S. and Chang, C. and Blazek, J. and Miquel, R. and Alarcon, A. and Alves, O. and Amon, A. and Andrade-Oliveira, F. and Bechtol, K. and Becker, M. R. and Bernstein, G. M. and Chen, R. and Choi, A. and Camacho, H. and Campos, A. and Rosell, A. Carnero and Carrasco Kind, M. and Cawthon, R. and Cordero, J. and Crocce, M. and Davis, C. and DeRose, J. and Diehl, H. T. and Dodelson, S. and Doux, C. and Drlica-Wagner, A. and Eckert, K. and Eifler, T. F. and Elvin-Poole, J. and Everett, S. and Fang, X. and Ferté, A. and Fosalba, P. and Friedrich, O. and Gatti, M. and Giannini, G. and Gruen, D. and Gruendl, R. A. and Harrison, I. and Hartley, W. G. and Herner, K. and Huang, H. and Huff, E. M. and Jarvis, M. and Krause, E. and Kuropatkin, N. and Leget, P-F and McCullough, J. and Myles, J. and Navarro-Alsina, A. and Porredon, A. and Raveri, M. and Rollins, R. P. and Roodman, A. and Rosenfeld, R. and Ross, A. J. and Rykoff, E. S. and Sánchez, C. and Sanchez, J. and Secco, L. F. and Sevilla-Noarbe, I. and Sheldon, E. and Shin, T. and Troxel, M. A. and Tutusaus, I. and Varga, T. N. and Yanny, B. and Yin, B. and Zhang, Y. and Zuntz, J. and Aguena, M. and Allam, S. and Annis, J. and Bacon, D. and Bertin, E. and Bocquet, S. and Brooks, D. and Burke, D. L. and Carretero, J. and Costanzi, M. and Pereira, M. E. S. and De Vicente, J. and Desai, S. and Ferrero, I. and Flaugher, B. and Gerdes, D. W. and Gutierrez, G. and Hinton, S. R. and Hollowood, D. L. and Honscheid, K. and James, D. J. and Lima, M. and Menanteau, F. and Mena-Fernández, J. and Palmese, A. and Paterno, M. and Paz-Chinchón, F. and Pieres, A. and Plazas Malagón, A. A. and Rodriguez-Monroy, M. and Sanchez, E. and Schubnell, M. and Smith, M. and Soares-Santos, M. and Suchyta, E. and Swanson, M. E. C. and Tarle, G. and To, C. and Weaverdyck, N. and Weller, J. and The DES Collaboration)},
abstractNote = {Recent cosmological analyses with large-scale structure and weak lensing measurements, usually referred to as 3 × 2pt, had to discard a lot of signal to noise from small scales due to our inability to accurately model non-linearities and baryonic effects. Galaxy–galaxy lensing, or the position–shear correlation between lens and source galaxies, is one of the three two-point correlation functions that are included in such analyses, usually estimated with the mean tangential shear. However, tangential shear measurements at a given angular scale θ or physical scale R carry information from all scales below that, forcing the scale cuts applied in real data to be significantly larger than the scale at which theoretical uncertainties become problematic. Recently, there have been a few independent efforts that aim to mitigate the non-locality of the galaxy–galaxy lensing signal. Here, for this study, we perform a comparison of the different methods, including the Y-transformation, the point-mass marginalization methodology, and the annular differential surface density statistic. We do the comparison at the cosmological constraints level in a combined galaxy clustering and galaxy–galaxy lensing analysis. In this study, we find that all the estimators yield equivalent cosmological results assuming a simulated Rubin Observatory Legacy Survey of Space and Time (LSST) Year 1 like set-up and also when applied to DES Y3 data. With the LSST Y1 set-up, we find that the mitigation schemes yield ~1.3 times more constraining S8 results than applying larger scale cuts without using any mitigation scheme.},
doi = {10.1093/mnras/stad847},
journal = {Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society},
number = 1,
volume = 522,
place = {United Kingdom},
year = {Tue Mar 21 00:00:00 EDT 2023},
month = {Tue Mar 21 00:00:00 EDT 2023}
}
https://doi.org/10.1093/mnras/stad847
Works referenced in this record:
Weak Gravitational Lensing by Galaxies
journal, August 1996
- Brainerd, Tereasa G.; Blandford, Roger D.; Smail, Ian
- The Astrophysical Journal, Vol. 466
Multimodal nested sampling: an efficient and robust alternative to Markov Chain Monte Carlo methods for astronomical data analyses: Multimodal nested sampling
journal, January 2008
- Feroz, F.; Hobson, M. P.
- Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, Vol. 384, Issue 2
Dark Energy Survey year 3 results: Constraints on cosmological parameters and galaxy-bias models from galaxy clustering and galaxy-galaxy lensing using the redMaGiC sample
journal, August 2022
- Pandey, S.; Krause, E.; DeRose, J.
- Physical Review D, Vol. 106, Issue 4
Dark Energy Survey year 1 results: Cosmological constraints from galaxy clustering and weak lensing
journal, August 2018
- Abbott, T. M. C.; Abdalla, F. B.; Alarcon, A.
- Physical Review D, Vol. 98, Issue 4
Cosmological constraints from galaxy–lensing cross-correlations using BOSS galaxies with SDSS and CMB lensing
journal, October 2019
- Singh, Sukhdeep; Mandelbaum, Rachel; Seljak, Uroš
- Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, Vol. 491, Issue 1
How to measure CMB power spectra without losing information
journal, May 1997
- Tegmark, Max
- Physical Review D, Vol. 55, Issue 10
Revising the Halofit Model for the Nonlinear Matter Power Spectrum
journal, December 2012
- Takahashi, Ryuichi; Sato, Masanori; Nishimichi, Takahiro
- The Astrophysical Journal, Vol. 761, Issue 2
Galaxy–galaxy lensing in the VOICE deep survey
journal, November 2022
- Luo, Ruibiao; Fu, Liping; Luo, Wentao
- Astronomy & Astrophysics, Vol. 668
Joint galaxy-lensing observables and the dark energy
journal, August 2004
- Hu, Wayne; Jain, Bhuvnesh
- Physical Review D, Vol. 70, Issue 4
KiDS-1000 Cosmology: Multi-probe weak gravitational lensing and spectroscopic galaxy clustering constraints
journal, February 2021
- Heymans, Catherine; Tröster, Tilman; Asgari, Marika
- Astronomy & Astrophysics, Vol. 646
Dark Energy Survey Year 3 results: galaxy–halo connection from galaxy–galaxy lensing
journal, November 2021
- Zacharegkas, G.; Chang, C.; Prat, J.
- Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, Vol. 509, Issue 3
Large-scale galaxy bias
journal, February 2018
- Desjacques, Vincent; Jeong, Donghui; Schmidt, Fabian
- Physics Reports, Vol. 733
The effects of galaxy formation on the matter power spectrum: a challenge for precision cosmology: Galaxy formation and the matter power spectrum
journal, July 2011
- van Daalen, Marcel P.; Schaye, Joop; Booth, C. M.
- Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, Vol. 415, Issue 4
cosmolike – cosmological likelihood analyses for photometric galaxy surveys
journal, May 2017
- Krause, Elisabeth; Eifler, Tim
- Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, Vol. 470, Issue 2
Measuring the Galaxy Power Spectrum with Future Redshift Surveys
journal, June 1998
- Tegmark, Max; Hamilton, Andrew J. S.; Strauss, Michael A.
- The Astrophysical Journal, Vol. 499, Issue 2
Dark Energy Survey Year 3 results: Cosmological constraints from galaxy clustering and weak lensing
journal, January 2022
- Abbott, T. M. C.; Aguena, M.; Alarcon, A.
- Physical Review D, Vol. 105, Issue 2
MultiNest: an efficient and robust Bayesian inference tool for cosmology and particle physics
journal, October 2009
- Feroz, F.; Hobson, M. P.; Bridges, M.
- Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, Vol. 398, Issue 4
KiDS-1000 catalogue: Weak gravitational lensing shear measurements
journal, January 2021
- Giblin, Benjamin; Heymans, Catherine; Asgari, Marika
- Astronomy & Astrophysics, Vol. 645
Cross-Correlation Tomography: Measuring Dark Energy Evolution with Weak Lensing
journal, October 2003
- Jain, Bhuvnesh; Taylor, Andy
- Physical Review Letters, Vol. 91, Issue 14
Joint measurement of lensing–galaxy correlations using SPT and DES SV data
journal, July 2016
- Baxter, E.; Clampitt, J.; Giannantonio, T.
- Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, Vol. 461, Issue 4
GALAXY-MASS CORRELATIONS ON 10 Mpc SCALES IN THE DEEP LENS SURVEY
journal, October 2012
- Choi, A.; Tyson, J. A.; Morrison, C. B.
- The Astrophysical Journal, Vol. 759, Issue 2
KiDS-450 + 2dFLenS: Cosmological parameter constraints from weak gravitational lensing tomography and overlapping redshift-space galaxy clustering
journal, October 2017
- Joudaki, Shahab; Blake, Chris; Johnson, Andrew
- Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, Vol. 474, Issue 4
Cosmological parameter constraints from galaxy–galaxy lensing and galaxy clustering with the SDSS DR7
journal, April 2013
- Mandelbaum, Rachel; Slosar, Anže; Baldauf, Tobias
- Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, Vol. 432, Issue 2
Dark Energy Survey Year 3 results: Cosmological constraints from galaxy clustering and galaxy-galaxy lensing using the MagLim lens sample
journal, November 2022
- Porredon, A.; Crocce, M.; Elvin-Poole, J.
- Physical Review D, Vol. 106, Issue 10
Lensing without borders – I. A blind comparison of the amplitude of galaxy–galaxy lensing between independent imaging surveys
journal, December 2021
- Leauthaud, A.; Amon, A.; Singh, S.
- Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, Vol. 510, Issue 4
Galaxy–galaxy lensing with the DES-CMASS catalogue: measurement and constraints on the galaxy-matter cross-correlation
journal, October 2021
- Lee, S.; Troxel, M. A.; Choi, A.
- Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, Vol. 509, Issue 2
Simultaneous measurement of cosmology and intrinsic alignments using joint cosmic shear and galaxy number density correlations
journal, November 2010
- Joachimi, B.; Bridle, S. L.
- Astronomy & Astrophysics, Vol. 523
Galaxy–galaxy lensing in the Dark Energy Survey Science Verification data
journal, November 2016
- Clampitt, J.; Sánchez, C.; Kwan, J.
- Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, Vol. 465, Issue 4
The physics driving the cosmic star formation history
journal, March 2010
- Schaye, Joop; Vecchia, Claudio Dalla; Booth, C. M.
- Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, Vol. 402, Issue 3
KiDS+GAMA: cosmology constraints from a joint analysis of cosmic shear, galaxy–galaxy lensing, and angular clustering
journal, March 2018
- van Uitert, Edo; Joachimi, Benjamin; Joudaki, Shahab
- Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, Vol. 476, Issue 4
Algorithm for the direct reconstruction of the dark matter correlation function from weak lensing and galaxy clustering
journal, March 2010
- Baldauf, Tobias; Smith, Robert E.; Seljak, Uroš
- Physical Review D, Vol. 81, Issue 6
Importance Nested Sampling and the MultiNest Algorithm
journal, November 2019
- Feroz, Farhan; Hobson, Michael P.; Cameron, Ewan
- The Open Journal of Astrophysics, Vol. 2, Issue 1
Dark Energy Survey Year 3 results: Exploiting small-scale information with lensing shear ratios
journal, April 2022
- Sánchez, C.; Prat, J.; Zacharegkas, G.
- Physical Review D, Vol. 105, Issue 8
Dark energy survey year 3 results: High-precision measurement and modeling of galaxy-galaxy lensing
journal, April 2022
- Prat, J.; Blazek, J.; Sánchez, C.
- Physical Review D, Vol. 105, Issue 8
2D-FFTLog: efficient computation of real-space covariance matrices for galaxy clustering and weak lensing
journal, June 2020
- Fang (方啸), Xiao; Eifler, Tim; Krause, Elisabeth
- Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, Vol. 497, Issue 3
CosmoSIS: Modular cosmological parameter estimation
journal, September 2015
- Zuntz, J.; Paterno, M.; Jennings, E.
- Astronomy and Computing, Vol. 12
Controlling and leveraging small-scale information in tomographic galaxy–galaxy lensing
journal, October 2019
- MacCrann, Niall; Blazek, Jonathan; Jain, Bhuvnesh
- Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, Vol. 491, Issue 4
Gravitational lensing analysis of the Kilo-Degree Survey
journal, October 2015
- Kuijken, Konrad; Heymans, Catherine; Hildebrandt, Hendrik
- Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, Vol. 454, Issue 4
Cosmography and Power Spectrum Estimation: A Unified Approach
journal, August 1998
- Seljak, Uroš
- The Astrophysical Journal, Vol. 503, Issue 2
IV.—On Least Squares and Linear Combination of Observations
journal, January 1936
- Aitken, A. C.
- Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Vol. 55
Analytic marginalization over CMB calibration and beam uncertainty
journal, October 2002
- Bridle, S. L.; Crittenden, R.; Melchiorri, A.
- Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, Vol. 335, Issue 4
Cosmological lensing ratios with DES Y1, SPT, and Planck
journal, May 2019
- Prat, J.; Baxter, E.; Shin, T.
- Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, Vol. 487, Issue 1
Dark Energy Survey year 1 results: Galaxy-galaxy lensing
journal, August 2018
- Prat, J.; Sánchez, C.; Fang, Y.
- Physical Review D, Vol. 98, Issue 4
KiDS+VIKING-450: Cosmic shear tomography with optical and infrared data
journal, January 2020
- Hildebrandt, H.; Köhlinger, F.; van den Busch, J. L.
- Astronomy & Astrophysics, Vol. 633