Pultrusion and Vitrimer Composites: Emerging Pathways for Sustainable Structural Materials

Kumar, Vishal; Shahwan, Khaled W.; Kuang, Wenbin; Simmons, Kevin L.; Taynton, Philip; Cieslinski, Emily R.

doi:10.3390/jcs9100559

Pultrusion and Vitrimer Composites: Emerging Pathways for Sustainable Structural Materials

Journal Article · Mon Oct 13 00:00:00 EDT 2025 · Journal of Composites Science

DOI:https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs9100559· OSTI ID:3000494

^[1]; ^[1]; Kuang, Wenbin ^[1]; Simmons, Kevin L. ^[1]; Taynton, Philip ^[2]; Cieslinski, Emily R. ^[3]

Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL), Richland, WA (United States)
CEO Mallinda Inc., Denver, CO (United States)
PulFlex Technologies, LLC, Ford City, PA (United States)

Pultrusion is a manufacturing process used to produce fiber-reinforced polymer composites with excellent mechanical, thermal, and chemical properties. The resulting materials are lightweight, durable, and corrosion-resistant, making them valuable in aerospace, automotive, construction, and energy sectors. However, conventional thermoset composites remain difficult to recycle due to their infusible and insoluble cross-linked structure. This review explores integrating vitrimer technology a novel class of recyclable thermosets with dynamic covalent adaptive networks into the pultrusion process. As only limited studies have directly reported vitrimer pultrusion to date, this review provides a forward-looking perspective, highlighting fundamental principles, challenges, and opportunities that can guide future development of recyclable high-performance composites. Vitrimers combine the mechanical strength (tensile strength and modulus) of thermosets with the reprocessability and reshaping of thermoplastics through dynamic bond exchange mechanisms. These polymers offer high-temperature reprocessability, self-healing, and closed-loop recyclability, where recycling efficiency can be evaluated by the recovery yield retention of mechanical properties and reuse cycles meeting the demand for sustainable manufacturing. Key aspects discussed include resin formulation, fiber impregnation, curing cycles, and die design for vitrimer systems. The temperature-dependent bond exchange reactions present challenges in achieving optimal curing and strong fiber–matrix adhesion. Recent studies indicate that vitrimer-based composites can maintain structural integrity while enabling recycling and repair, with mechanical performance such as flexural and tensile strength comparable to conventional composites. Incorporating vitrimer materials into pultrusion could enable high-performance, lightweight products for a circular economy. The remaining challenges include optimizing curing kinetics, improving interfacial adhesion, and scaling production for widespread industrial adoption.

View Accepted Manuscript (DOE)

Research Organization:: Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL), Richland, WA (United States)

Sponsoring Organization:: USDOE Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE), Office of Sustainable Transportation. Vehicle Technologies Office (VTO)

Grant/Contract Number:: AC05-76RL01830

OSTI ID:: 3000494

Report Number(s):: PNNL-SA--214756

Journal Information:: Journal of Composites Science, Journal Name: Journal of Composites Science Journal Issue: 10 Vol. 9; ISSN 2504-477X

Publisher:: MDPICopyright Statement

Country of Publication:: United States

Language:: English

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Epoxy resin with exchangeable disulfide crosslinks to obtain reprocessable, repairable and recyclable fiber-reinforced thermoset composites Ruiz de Luzuriaga, Alaitz; Martin, Roberto; Markaide, Nerea Materials Horizons, Vol. 3, Issue 3 https://doi.org/10.1039/C6MH00029K	journal	January 2016
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Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Composites for Construction—State-of-the-Art Review Bakis, C. E.; Bank, Lawrence C.; Brown, V. L. Journal of Composites for Construction, Vol. 6, Issue 2 https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0268(2002)6:2(73)	journal	May 2002
Analysis of the local fiber volume fraction variation in pultrusion process Baran, Ismet AIP Conference Proceedings https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5008016	conference	January 2017
Biodegradable natural fiber reinforced polymer matrix composites: Technical updates Mahesha, G. T.; Subrahmanya, Bhat K.; Padmaraja, N. H. AIP Conference Proceedings https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5131588	conference	January 2019
A Review on the Natural Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Composites for the Development of Roselle Fiber-Reinforced Polyester Composite Thiruchitrambalam, M.; Athijayamani, A.; Sathiyamurthy, S. Journal of Natural Fibers, Vol. 7, Issue 4 https://doi.org/10.1080/15440478.2010.529299	journal	November 2010
A Review on the Potential and Limitations of Recyclable Thermosets for Structural Applications Post, Wouter; Susa, Arijana; Blaauw, Rolf Polymer Reviews, Vol. 60, Issue 2 https://doi.org/10.1080/15583724.2019.1673406	journal	October 2019
Revolutionizing Elastomer Technology: Advances in Reversible Crosslinking, Reprocessing, and Self-Healing Applications Liu, Chunling; Fang, Wenhang; Cheng, Qianqian Polymer Reviews, Vol. 65, Issue 2 https://doi.org/10.1080/15583724.2024.2405904	journal	September 2024
Multi-response optimization of the mechanical properties of pultruded glass fiber composite using optimized hybrid filler composition by the gray relation grade analysis Gupta, Anurag; Vaishya, Rahul; Khan, K. L. A. Materials Research Express, Vol. 6, Issue 12 https://doi.org/10.1088/2053-1591/ab56f2	journal	November 2019
Shape memory polymer network with thermally distinct elasticity and plasticity Zhao, Qian; Zou, Weike; Luo, Yingwu Science Advances, Vol. 2, Issue 1 https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1501297	journal	January 2016
Silica-Like Malleable Materials from Permanent Organic Networks Montarnal, D.; Capelot, M.; Tournilhac, F. Science, Vol. 334, Issue 6058 https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1212648	journal	November 2011
High-performance vitrimers from commodity thermoplastics through dioxaborolane metathesis Röttger, Max; Domenech, Trystan; van der Weegen, Rob Science, Vol. 356, Issue 6333 https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aah5281	journal	April 2017
Properties of natural fiber composites made by pultrusion process Peng, Xi; Fan, Mizi; Hartley, John Journal of Composite Materials, Vol. 46, Issue 2 https://doi.org/10.1177/0021998311410474	journal	August 2011
Effect of water absorption on pultruded jute/glass fiber-reinforced unsaturated polyester hybrid composites Zamri, Mohd Hafiz; Akil, Hazizan Md; Bakar, Azhar Abu Journal of Composite Materials, Vol. 46, Issue 1, p. 51-61 https://doi.org/10.1177/0021998311410488	journal	September 2011
Influence of micro and nanofillers on mechanical properties of pultruded unidirectional glass fiber reinforced epoxy composite systems Manjunath, M.; Renukappa, Nm; Suresha, B. Journal of Composite Materials, Vol. 50, Issue 8 https://doi.org/10.1177/0021998315588623	journal	June 2015
Volumetric composition and shear strength evaluation of pultruded hybrid kenaf/glass fiber composites Hashemi, Fariborz; Tahir, Paridah Md; Madsen, Bo Journal of Composite Materials, Vol. 50, Issue 17 https://doi.org/10.1177/0021998315602948	journal	September 2015
A modified pultrusion process Irfan, Muhammad S.; Shotton-Gale, Nicholas; Paget, Mark A. Journal of Composite Materials, Vol. 51, Issue 13 https://doi.org/10.1177/0021998316666653	journal	September 2016
Pultruded materials and structures: A review Vedernikov, Alexander; Safonov, Alexander; Tucci, Fausto Journal of Composite Materials, Vol. 54, Issue 26 https://doi.org/10.1177/0021998320922894	journal	May 2020
On-site evaluation of a modified pultrusion process: Fibre spreading and resin injection-based impregnation Irfan, Ms; Harris, D.; Paget, Ma Journal of Composite Materials, Vol. 55, Issue 1 https://doi.org/10.1177/0021998320943268	journal	July 2020
Effects of additives on the cure kinetics of vinyl ester pultrusion resins Vedernikov, Alexander; Nasonov, Yaroslav; Korotkov, Roman Journal of Composite Materials, Vol. 55, Issue 21 https://doi.org/10.1177/00219983211001528	journal	March 2021
Investigation of quality related process variables in pultrusion by correlation of numerical and experimental data with application of an inline data acquisition system Heimbucher, Christoph; Seeßelberg, Lorenz; Giese, Erhard Journal of Composite Materials, Vol. 58, Issue 7 https://doi.org/10.1177/00219983241230389	journal	February 2024
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Influence of CaCO3 in pultruded glass fiber/unsaturated polyester resin composite on flexural creep behavior using conventional and time-temperature superposition principle methods Johari, A. N.; Ishak, M. R.; Leman, Z. Polimery, Vol. 65, Issue 11/12 https://doi.org/10.14314/polimery.2020.11.6	journal	November 2020
Effect of curing degree on mechanical and thermal properties of 2.5D quartz fiber reinforced boron phenolic composites Fu, Huadong; Qin, Yan; He, Xin e-Polymers, Vol. 19, Issue 1 https://doi.org/10.1515/epoly-2019-0048	journal	August 2019
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Processing and Evaluation of a Carbon Fiber Reinforced Composite Bar Using a Closed Impregnation Pultrusion System with Improved Production Speed Kang, Byungsoo; Lee, Changki; Kim, Seung-Mo Applied Sciences, Vol. 12, Issue 10 https://doi.org/10.3390/app12104906	journal	May 2022
Development of a Pultrusion Die for the Production of Thermoplastic Composite Filaments to Be Used in Additive Manufacture Ferreira, Filipe; Fernandes, Pedro; Correia, Nuno Journal of Composites Science, Vol. 5, Issue 5 https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs5050120	journal	May 2021
Thermoplastic Reaction Injection Pultrusion for Continuous Glass Fiber-Reinforced Polyamide-6 Composites Chen, Ke; Jia, Mingyin; Sun, Hua Materials, Vol. 12, Issue 3 https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12030463	journal	February 2019
Pultruded GFRP Reinforcing Bars Using Nanomodified Vinyl Ester Vemuganti, Shreya; Chennareddy, Rahulreddy; Riad, Amr Materials, Vol. 13, Issue 24 https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13245710	journal	December 2020
Fatigue and Impact Properties of Kenaf/Glass-Reinforced Hybrid Pultruded Composites for Structural Applications Balakrishnan, Thinesh Sharma; Sultan, Mohamed Thariq Hameed; Shahar, Farah Syazwani Materials, Vol. 17, Issue 2 https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17020302	journal	January 2024
Research Progress of Cryogenic Materials for Storage and Transportation of Liquid Hydrogen Qiu, Yinan; Yang, Huan; Tong, Lige Metals, Vol. 11, Issue 7 https://doi.org/10.3390/met11071101	journal	July 2021
Gold Nanospheres Dispersed Light Responsive Epoxy Vitrimers Wang, Zhenhua; Li, Zhen; Wei, Yen Polymers, Vol. 10, Issue 1 https://doi.org/10.3390/polym10010065	journal	January 2018
The Impact of Vitrimers on the Industry of the Future: Chemistry, Properties and Sustainable Forward-Looking Applications Alabiso, Walter; Schlögl, Sandra Polymers, Vol. 12, Issue 8 https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12081660	journal	July 2020
Manufacturing Technologies of Carbon/Glass Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Composites and Their Properties: A Review Rajak, Dipen Kumar; Wagh, Pratiksha H.; Linul, Emanoil Polymers, Vol. 13, Issue 21 https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13213721	journal	October 2021
Numerical Simulation of Impregnation Process of Reactive Injection Pultrusion for Glass Fiber/PA6 Composites Ding, Xueliang; He, Quanguo; Yang, Qun Polymers, Vol. 14, Issue 4 https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14040666	journal	February 2022
Mechanical Characterization of Hybrid Nano-Filled Glass/Epoxy Composites Rajhi, Ali A. Polymers, Vol. 14, Issue 22, p. 4852 https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14224852	journal	November 2022
Different Production Processes for Thermoplastic Composite Materials: Sustainability versus Mechanical Properties and Processes Parameter Valente, Marco; Rossitti, Ilaria; Sambucci, Matteo Polymers, Vol. 15, Issue 1 https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15010242	journal	January 2023
Effects of Additives on the Mechanical and Fire Resistance Properties of Pultruded Composites Romanovskaia, Natalia; Minchenkov, Kirill; Gusev, Sergey Polymers, Vol. 15, Issue 17 https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15173581	journal	August 2023
Recycling Approach towards Sustainability Advance of Composite Materials’ Industry Ribeiro, Maria; Fiúza, António; Ferreira, António Recycling, Vol. 1, Issue 1 https://doi.org/10.3390/recycling1010178	journal	June 2016
Natural Fiber Reinforced Polymer Composites for Automobile Accessories No authors listed American Journal of Environmental Sciences, Vol. 9, Issue 6 https://doi.org/10.3844/ajessp.2013.494.504	journal	June 2013

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Pultrusion and Vitrimer Composites: Emerging Pathways for Sustainable Structural Materials

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