Review on Preprocessing Strategies, Deactivation, Thermal Safety, and Future Perspectives in Lithium-Ion Battery Recycling

Zhan, Zhonghua; Li, Xiaolong; Roy, Rajarshi; Cremer, Marc; Chiodo, Andrew; Hui, Chao; Deng, Sili; Keisar, David; Fry, Andrew; Lillie, Brooke; Nichols, McKenna; Fernando, Austine; LaTour, Parker; Alderson, Kayden; Pearson, Jeremy; Hortin, Tyler; Wendt, Jost

doi:10.1021/acs.energyfuels.5c04050

Review on Preprocessing Strategies, Deactivation, Thermal Safety, and Future Perspectives in Lithium-Ion Battery Recycling

Journal Article · Fri Oct 03 00:00:00 EDT 2025 · Energy & Fuels

DOI:https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.energyfuels.5c04050· OSTI ID:3000484

^[1]; ^[1]; Roy, Rajarshi ^[1]; Cremer, Marc ^[1]; ^[1]; Hui, Chao ^[2]; ^[3]; ^[3]; ^[4]; Lillie, Brooke ^[4]; Nichols, McKenna ^[4]; Fernando, Austine ^[4]; LaTour, Parker ^[4]; Alderson, Kayden ^[5]; Pearson, Jeremy ^[5]; Hortin, Tyler ^[6]; Wendt, Jost ^[7]

Reaction Engineering International, Midvale, UT (United States)
American Battery Factory, American Fork, UT (United States)
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA (United States)
Brigham Young University, Provo, UT (United States)
Utah San Rafael Energy Laboratory, Orangeville, UT (United States)
Lion Energy, American Fork, UT (United States)
University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT (United States)

The rapid growth in the use of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) in electric vehicles, consumer electronics, and renewable energy storage has made effective end-of-life management essential. Recycling LIBs is critical not only for resource recovery and environmental protection but also for ensuring safety and economic viability. This review focuses on the preprocessing technologies that precede typical recovery processes, including disassembly, sorting, discharging, electrolyte removal, dismantling, thermal treatment, separation, and flotation. These steps play a foundational role in determining the efficiency, safety, and environmental impact of LIB recycling. LIBs pose substantial fire and explosion risks due to residual charge, flammable electrolytes, and reactive materials. The conditions and successive progression of the exothermic reactions which lead to thermal runaway has been discussed. It also explores secure deactivation techniques such as external circuit discharge, saline immersion, and thermomechanical methods, alongside fire prevention strategies including the use of flame retardants, elimination of oxidants, and reduction of heat generation and accumulation. Challenges and future directions are outlined, highlighting the need for standardized designs, automation, and safer, more sustainable recycling infrastructure. Furthermore, this review is distinguished by its focused analysis of preprocessing and deactivation steps, with particular attention to the thermal safety engineering aspects of LIB recycling.

View Accepted Manuscript (DOE)

Research Organization:: National Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL), Pittsburgh, PA, Morgantown, WV, and Albany, OR (United States)

Sponsoring Organization:: USDOE Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE), Office of Sustainable Transportation. Vehicle Technologies Office (VTO)

Grant/Contract Number:: EE0011364

OSTI ID:: 3000484

Report Number(s):: DOE-REI-11364--2

Journal Information:: Energy & Fuels, Journal Name: Energy & Fuels; ISSN 1520-5029; ISSN 0887-0624

Publisher:: American Chemical Society (ACS)Copyright Statement

Country of Publication:: United States

Language:: English

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Self-Extinguishing Lithium Ion Batteries Based on Internally Embedded Fire-Extinguishing Microcapsules with Temperature-Responsiveness Yim, Taeeun; Park, Min-Sik; Woo, Sang-Gil Nano Letters, Vol. 15, Issue 8 https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.nanolett.5b01167	journal	July 2015
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Electrochemical Relithiation for Direct Regeneration of LiCoO ₂ Materials from Spent Lithium-Ion Battery Electrodes Zhang, Lingen; Xu, Zhenming; He, Zhen ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering, Vol. 8, Issue 31 https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.0c02854	journal	July 2020
Discharge Pathways and Deactivation Mechanisms of Retired Lithium-Ion Batteries Kang, Fei; Zhao, Yujuan; Liu, Yongqi ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering, Vol. 13, Issue 16 https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.5c00940	journal	April 2025
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Recent Advancements in Artificial Intelligence in Battery Recycling Antony Jose, Subin; Cook, Connor Andrew Dennis; Palacios, Joseph Batteries, Vol. 10, Issue 12 https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10120440	journal	December 2024
Effects of Ultrasonic Pretreatment on the Discharge for Better Recycling of Spent Lithium-Ion Batteries Yang, Weichen; Tong, Zheng; Wan, Hezhan Batteries, Vol. 11, Issue 2 https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11020056	journal	February 2025
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A Study on the Battery Recycling Process and Risk Estimation Kim, Taeho; Yoon, Cheolhee; Jung, Seungho International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, Vol. 21, Issue 12 https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph21121649	journal	December 2024
Recycling Strategies for Spent Consumer Lithium-Ion Batteries Petzold, Moritz; Flamme, Sabine Metals, Vol. 14, Issue 2 https://doi.org/10.3390/met14020151	journal	January 2024
Boron Nitride Nanotube-Based Separator for High-Performance Lithium-Sulfur Batteries Kim, Hong-Sik; Kang, Hui-Ju; Lim, Hongjin Nanomaterials, Vol. 12, Issue 1 https://doi.org/10.3390/nano12010011	journal	December 2021
Wearable and Washable MnO2−Zn Battery Packaged by Vacuum Sealing Noh, Jun Ho; Oh, Myoungeun; Kang, Sunjin Nanomaterials, Vol. 13, Issue 2 https://doi.org/10.3390/nano13020265	journal	January 2023
Graphite Separation from Lithium-Ion Battery Black Mass Using Froth Flotation and Quality Evaluation for Reuse as a Secondary Raw Material Including Non-Battery Applications Rieger, Johannes; Stuhr, Stephan; Rutrecht, Bettina Recycling, Vol. 10, Issue 2 https://doi.org/10.3390/recycling10020075	journal	April 2025

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