Analyzing LF/VLF Lightning Waveforms to Estimate D-region Electron Density Profiles

Smith, William R.; Lay, Erin Hoffmann; Fitch, Kyle E.; Emmons, Daniel J.

doi:10.1016/j.asr.2025.04.060

Analyzing LF/VLF Lightning Waveforms to Estimate D-region Electron Density Profiles

Journal Article · Tue Apr 01 00:00:00 EDT 2025 · Advances in Space Research

DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asr.2025.04.060· OSTI ID:2564617

Smith, William R. ^[1]; ^[2]; Fitch, Kyle E. ^[1]; Emmons, Daniel J. ^[1]

Air Force Institute of Technology, Wright-Patterson AFB, OH (United States)
Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL), Los Alamos, NM (United States)

Lightning waveforms in the low frequency (LF; 30-300 kHz) and the very low frequency (VLF; 3-30 kHz) bands can be exploited to produce data-driven ionospheric D-region electron density profile (EDP) estimates with significantly higher spatial and temporal coverage than previously available. The lightning waveforms used in this paper are signals detected in the LF/VLF of negative cloud-to-ground lightning by the Earth Networks Total Lightning Detection Network. Each waveform contains a ground wave and a time-delayed ionospheric reflection. The time delay between the ground wave and ionospheric reflection has previously been used to estimate a single specular reflection altitude, where LF/VLF emissions are reflected by the ionosphere. Here, we expand upon previous methods to include filtering and spectral analysis, and account for oblique propagation to produce higher-order estimates for reflection altitudes and corresponding electron densities. Once estimated, reflection altitudes and corresponding electron densities can be used to derive parameters β and h’, which define an EDP for the D-region. In this study, the lightning waveform (LW) analysis is demonstrated using a single representative 24-hour dataset over the Southeast United States, and then extended to a total of 10 separate datasets with varying locations and ionospheric conditions. The LW-derived D-region EDPs are in agreement with predictions made by the Faraday International Reference Ionosphere model, and the LW EDPs β and h’ values are consistent with previous LF/VLF-derived estimates.

View Accepted Manuscript (DOE)

Research Organization:: Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL), Los Alamos, NM (United States)

Sponsoring Organization:: USDOE; Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA)

Grant/Contract Number:: 89233218CNA000001

OSTI ID:: 2564617

Report Number(s):: LA-UR--25-20223

Journal Information:: Advances in Space Research, Journal Name: Advances in Space Research; ISSN 0273-1177

Publisher:: ElsevierCopyright Statement

Country of Publication:: United States

Language:: English

References (37)

D region electron profiles observed with substantial spatial and temporal change near thunderstorms Lay, Erin H.; Shao, Xuan‐Min; Jacobson, Abram R. Journal of Geophysical Research: Space Physics, Vol. 119, Issue 6 https://doi.org/10.1002/2013JA019430	journal	June 2014
Magnetic field effects on the accuracy of ionospheric mirror models for geolocation Dao, Eugene V.; McNamara, Leo F.; Colman, Jonah J. Radio Science, Vol. 51, Issue 4 https://doi.org/10.1002/2015RS005884	journal	April 2016
Spatial and Temporal Ionospheric Monitoring Using Broadband Sferic Measurements McCormick, J. C.; Cohen, M. B.; Gross, N. C. Journal of Geophysical Research: Space Physics, Vol. 123, Issue 4 https://doi.org/10.1002/2017JA024291	journal	April 2018
Evaluation of ENTLN Performance Characteristics Based on the Ground Truth Natural and Rocket-Triggered Lightning Data Acquired in Florida: Evaluation of ENTLN Performance Zhu, Y.; Rakov, V. A.; Tran, M. D. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, Vol. 122, Issue 18 https://doi.org/10.1002/2017JD027270	journal	September 2017
News from the Lower Ionosphere: A Review of Recent Developments Friedrich, M.; Rapp, M. Surveys in Geophysics, Vol. 30, Issue 6 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10712-009-9074-2	journal	June 2009
The incoherent scatter radar as a tool for studying the ionospheric D-region Mathews, J. D. Journal of Atmospheric and Terrestrial Physics, Vol. 46, Issue 11 https://doi.org/10.1016/0021-9169(84)90004-7	journal	November 1984
Experimental daytime VLF ionospheric parameters Thomson, N. R. Journal of Atmospheric and Terrestrial Physics, Vol. 55, Issue 2 https://doi.org/10.1016/0021-9169(93)90122-F	journal	February 1993
The E- and D-region in IRI Bilitza, D. Advances in Space Research, Vol. 21, Issue 6 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0273-1177(97)00645-5	journal	January 1998
New ideas on the D-region modeling Danilov, A. D. Advances in Space Research, Vol. 25, Issue 1 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0273-1177(99)00891-1	journal	January 2000
Lightning effects at high altitudes: sprites, elves, and terrestrial gamma ray flashes Inan, Umran S. Comptes Rendus. Physique, Vol. 3, Issue 10 https://doi.org/10.1016/S1631-0705(02)01418-4	journal	November 2002
Empirical recombination rates in the lower ionosphere Friedrich, M.; Torkar, K. M.; Steiner, R. J. Advances in Space Research, Vol. 34, Issue 9 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asr.2004.04.010	journal	January 2004
Lower ionosphere response to external forcing: A brief review Laštovička, Jan Advances in Space Research, Vol. 43, Issue 1 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asr.2008.10.001	journal	January 2009
Probing the D-region ionosphere globally with Earth Networks Total Lightning Network data Lay, Erin; Hudson, Emily; Markowski, Danielle Advances in Space Research https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asr.2024.09.049	journal	September 2024
Analyzing lightning characteristics in central and southern South America DiGangi, Elizabeth; Lapierre, Jeff; Stock, Michael Electric Power Systems Research, Vol. 213 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsr.2022.108704	journal	December 2022
Using tweek atmospherics to measure the response of the low-middle latitude D-region ionosphere to a magnetic storm Ohya, H.; Nishino, M.; Murayama, Y. Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics, Vol. 68, Issue 6 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jastp.2005.10.014	journal	March 2006
Global ionosonde and GPS radio occultation sporadic-E intensity and height comparison Gooch, Joshua Y.; Colman, Jonah J.; Nava, Omar A. Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics, Vol. 199 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jastp.2020.105200	journal	March 2020
A method for determining intracloud lightning and ionospheric heights from VLF/LF electric field records: VLF/LF IC LIGHTNING AND IONOSPHERE HEIGHT Smith, D. A.; Heavner, M. J.; Jacobson, A. R. Radio Science, Vol. 39, Issue 1 https://doi.org/10.1029/2002RS002790	journal	February 2004
High temporal and spatial-resolution detection of D-layer fluctuations by using time-domain lightning waveforms: DETECTION OF D-LAYER FLUCTUATIONS Lay, Erin H.; Shao, Xuan-Min Journal of Geophysical Research: Space Physics, Vol. 116, Issue A1 https://doi.org/10.1029/2010JA016018	journal	January 2011
Multi-station probing of thunderstorm-generated D-layer fluctuations by using time-domain lightning waveforms: MULTI-STATION VLF MEASUREMENT OF D-LAYER Lay, E. H.; Shao, X. -M. Geophysical Research Letters, Vol. 38, Issue 23 https://doi.org/10.1029/2011GL049790	journal	December 2011
Morphological features of tweeks and nighttimeDregion ionosphere at tweek reflection height from the observations in the low‐latitude Indian sector Maurya, Ajeet K.; Singh, Rajesh; Veenadhari, B. Journal of Geophysical Research: Space Physics, Vol. 117, Issue A5 https://doi.org/10.1029/2011JA016976	journal	May 2012
Nighttime D region electron density measurements from ELF‐VLF tweek radio atmospherics recorded at low latitudes Maurya, Ajeet K.; Veenadhari, B.; Singh, Rajesh Journal of Geophysical Research: Space Physics, Vol. 117, Issue A11 https://doi.org/10.1029/2012JA017876	journal	November 2012
Ionospheric D Region Remote Sensing Using ELF Sferic Group Velocity Gołkowski, M.; Sarker, S. R.; Renick, C. Geophysical Research Letters, Vol. 45, Issue 23 https://doi.org/10.1029/2018GL080108	journal	December 2018
FIRI‐2018, an Updated Empirical Model of the Lower Ionosphere Friedrich, M.; Pock, C.; Torkar, K. Journal of Geophysical Research: Space Physics, Vol. 123, Issue 8 https://doi.org/10.1029/2018JA025437	journal	August 2018
Wave characteristics of tweek atmospherics deduced from the direction‐finding measurement and theoretical interpretation Hayakawa, M.; Ohta, K.; Baba, K. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, Vol. 99, Issue D5, p. 10733-10743 https://doi.org/10.1029/93JD02555	journal	May 1994
Ionospheric D region remote sensing using VLF radio atmospherics Cummer, S. A.; Inan, U. S.; Bell, T. F. Radio Science, Vol. 33, Issue 6 https://doi.org/10.1029/98RS02381	journal	November 1998
Automatic calculation of electron density profiles from digital ionograms: 2. True height inversion of topside ionograms with the profile‐fitting method Xueqin, Huang; Reinisch, Bodo W. Radio Science, Vol. 17, Issue 4 https://doi.org/10.1029/RS017i004p00837	journal	July 1982
Reduction of electron density in the night-time lower ionosphere in response to a thunderstorm Shao, Xuan-Min; Lay, Erin H.; Jacobson, Abram R. Nature Geoscience, Vol. 6, Issue 1 https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo1668	journal	December 2012
The propagation of medium radio waves in the ionosphere Martyn, D. F. Proceedings of the Physical Society, Vol. 47, Issue 2 https://doi.org/10.1088/0959-5309/47/2/311	journal	March 1935
A Test of the Existence of the Conducting Layer Breit, G.; Tuve, M. A. Physical Review, Vol. 28, Issue 3 https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRev.28.554	journal	September 1926
Introduction to the Theory of VLF Propagation Wait, James Proceedings of the IRE, Vol. 50, Issue 7 https://doi.org/10.1109/JRPROC.1962.288152	journal	July 1962
Fundamental relations in the design of a VLF transmitting antenna Wheeler, H. IRE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation, Vol. 6, Issue 1 https://doi.org/10.1109/TAP.1958.1144566	journal	January 1958
Polarization-Based VLF Remote Sensing of Transient Ionospheric Disturbances Burch, Hunter C.; Moore, Robert C. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing, Vol. 62 https://doi.org/10.1109/TGRS.2024.3469381	journal	January 2024
Nighttime D-region equivalent electron density determined from tweek sferics observed in the South Pacific Region Kumar, Sushil; Deo, Anil; Ramachandran, V. Earth, Planets and Space, Vol. 61, Issue 7 https://doi.org/10.1186/BF03353201	journal	July 2009
Physical Model of D-Region Ionosphere and Preliminary Comparison with IRI and Data of MF Radar at Kunming Zhu, Mengyan; Xu, Tong; Sun, Shuji Atmosphere, Vol. 14, Issue 2 https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos14020235	journal	January 2023
Upgrades of the Earth Networks Total Lightning Network in 2021 Zhu, Yanan; Stock, Michael; Lapierre, Jeff Remote Sensing, Vol. 14, Issue 9 https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14092209	journal	May 2022
Higher harmonic tweek sferics observed at low latitude: estimation of VLF reflection heights and tweek propagation distance Kumar, S.; Kishore, A.; Ramachandran, V. Annales Geophysicae, Vol. 26, Issue 6 https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-26-1451-2008	journal	June 2008
Acoustic–gravity waves and their role in the ionospheric D region–lower thermosphere interaction Jovanovic, Gordana Annales Geophysicae, Vol. 42, Issue 2 https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-42-491-2024	journal	December 2024

Similar Records

VLF/LF (very low frequency/low frequency) reflection properties of the low-latitude ionosphere. Interim technical report

Technical Report · Wed Feb 03 23:00:00 EST 1988 · OSTI ID:5707402

VLF and LF signatures of mesospheric/lower ionospheric response to lightning discharges

Journal Article · Thu Feb 29 23:00:00 EST 1996 · Journal of Geophysical Research · OSTI ID:255048

VLF/LF remote sensing of transient and localized disturbances of the lower ionosphere associated with lightning discharges

Technical Report · Thu May 03 00:00:00 EDT 1990 · OSTI ID:6137682

Related Subjects

D-region ionosphere
LF/VLF lightning waveform
Very Low Frequency
planetary sciences

Analyzing LF/VLF Lightning Waveforms to Estimate D-region Electron Density Profiles

Citation Formats

References (37)

Similar Records

Related Subjects