skip to main content
OSTI.GOV title logo U.S. Department of Energy
Office of Scientific and Technical Information

Title: Flexible Electronics: Stretchable Electrodes and Their Future

Journal Article · · Advanced Functional Materials

Abstract Flexible electronics, as an emerging and exciting research field, have brought great interest to the issue of how to make flexible electronic materials that offer both durability and high performance at strained states. With the advent of on‐body wearable and implantable electronics, as well as increasing demands for human‐friendly intelligent soft robots, enormous effort is being expended on highly flexible functional materials, especially stretchable electrodes, by both the academic and industrial communities. Among different deformation modes, stretchability is the most demanding and challenging. This review focuses on the latest advances in stretchable transparent electrodes based on a new design strategy known as kirigami (the art of paper cutting) and investigates the recent progress on novel applications, including skin‐like electronics, implantable biodegradable devices, and bioinspired soft robotics. By comparing the optoelectrical and mechanical properties of different electrode materials, some of the most important outcomes with comments on their merits and demerits are raised. Key design considerations in terms of geometries, substrates, and adhesion are also discussed, offering insights into the universal strategies for engineering stretchable electrodes regardless of the material. It is suggested that highly stretchable and biocompatible electrodes will greatly boost the development of next‐generation intelligent life‐like electronics.

Research Organization:
Univ. of Houston, TX (United States)
Sponsoring Organization:
USDOE Office of Science (SC)
Grant/Contract Number:
SC0010831; DE‐SC0010831
OSTI ID:
1611545
Alternate ID(s):
OSTI ID: 1483898
Journal Information:
Advanced Functional Materials, Vol. 29, Issue 6; ISSN 1616-301X
Publisher:
WileyCopyright Statement
Country of Publication:
United States
Language:
English
Citation Metrics:
Cited by: 416 works
Citation information provided by
Web of Science

References (138)

Bioresorbable silicon electronics for transient spatiotemporal mapping of electrical activity from the cerebral cortex journal April 2016
In Vivo Powering of Pacemaker by Breathing-Driven Implanted Triboelectric Nanogenerator journal July 2014
Design and control of a bio-inspired soft wearable robotic device for ankle–foot rehabilitation journal January 2014
Flexible transparent conductive materials based on silver nanowire networks: a review journal October 2013
The Growth Mechanism of Copper Nanowires and Their Properties in Flexible, Transparent Conducting Films journal June 2010
Mechanisms of reversible stretchability of thin metal films on elastomeric substrates journal May 2006
Copper Nanowires and Their Applications for Flexible, Transparent Conducting Films: A Review journal March 2016
Melding Vapor-Phase Organic Chemistry and Textile Manufacturing To Produce Wearable Electronics journal March 2018
Past achievements and future challenges in the development of optically transparent electrodes journal November 2012
Wearable embroidered muscle activity sensing device for the human upper leg conference August 2016
A mechanically driven form of Kirigami as a route to 3D mesostructures in micro/nanomembranes journal September 2015
Ultraflexible organic amplifier with biocompatible gel electrodes journal April 2016
Highly stretchable electroluminescent skin for optical signaling and tactile sensing journal March 2016
Compliant thin film patterns of stiff materials as platforms for stretchable electronics journal December 2005
Highly flexible, wearable, and disposable cardiac biosensors for remote and ambulatory monitoring journal January 2018
Printable Thin Film Supercapacitors Using Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes journal May 2009
Flexible Electronics: An Epidermal Stimulation and Sensing Platform for Sensorimotor Prosthetic Control, Management of Lower Back Exertion, and Electrical Muscle Activation (Adv. Mater. 22/2016) journal June 2016
Liquid Metal Droplets Wrapped with Polysaccharide Microgel as Biocompatible Aqueous Ink for Flexible Conductive Devices journal August 2018
3D printed reversible shape changing soft actuators assisted by liquid crystal elastomers journal January 2017
Silver Nanowire Percolation Network Soldered with Graphene Oxide at Room Temperature and Its Application for Fully Stretchable Polymer Light-Emitting Diodes journal January 2014
Highly Conductive and Transparent PEDOT:PSS Films with a Fluorosurfactant for Stretchable and Flexible Transparent Electrodes journal November 2011
Self-Healing Stretchable Wires for Reconfigurable Circuit Wiring and 3D Microfluidics journal January 2013
A Highly Stretchable and Fatigue-Free Transparent Electrode Based on an In-Plane Buckled Au Nanotrough Network journal February 2017
Influence of object shape on responses of human tactile afferents under conditions characteristic of manipulation journal July 2003
Fine patterning of glycerol-doped PEDOT:PSS on hydrophobic PVP dielectric with ink jet for source and drain electrode of OTFTs journal May 2010
Design, fabrication and control of soft robots journal May 2015
Enhancing the Scratch Resistance by Introducing Chemical Bonding in Highly Stretchable and Transparent Electrodes journal December 2015
Carbon coated textiles for flexible energy storage journal January 2011
Soft, stretchable, fully implantable miniaturized optoelectronic systems for wireless optogenetics journal November 2015
Weakening of the stratospheric polar vortex by Arctic sea-ice loss journal September 2014
Stretchable, Transparent, Ionic Conductors journal August 2013
A highly flexible transparent conductive electrode based on nanomaterials journal October 2017
Strong, Transparent, Multifunctional, Carbon Nanotube Sheets journal August 2005
A transparent electrode based on a metal nanotrough network journal May 2013
Scalable Coating and Properties of Transparent, Flexible, Silver Nanowire Electrodes journal March 2010
Skin electronics from scalable fabrication of an intrinsically stretchable transistor array journal February 2018
A kirigami approach to engineering elasticity in nanocomposites through patterned defects journal June 2015
Spatial and temporal codes mediate the tactile perception of natural textures journal September 2013
A bioinspired soft manipulator for minimally invasive surgery journal May 2015
Fatigue-free, superstretchable, transparent, and biocompatible metal electrodes journal September 2015
Tailoring Graphene to Achieve Negative Poisson's Ratio Properties journal December 2014
Soft Actuator Mimicking Human Esophageal Peristalsis for a Swallowing Robot journal August 2014
Bring on the bodyNET journal September 2017
Skin-like pressure and strain sensors based on transparent elastic films of carbon nanotubes journal October 2011
Stretchable Supercapacitors Based on Buckled Single-Walled Carbon-Nanotube Macrofilms journal August 2009
Self-healing soft pneumatic robots journal August 2017
Epidermal Electronics journal August 2011
Taxel-Addressable Matrix of Vertical-Nanowire Piezotronic Transistors for Active and Adaptive Tactile Imaging journal April 2013
Flexible and stretchable power sources for wearable electronics journal June 2017
Liquid-Metal-Based Super-Stretchable and Structure-Designable Triboelectric Nanogenerator for Wearable Electronics journal January 2018
Entirely soft dielectric elastomer robots
  • Henke, E. -F. Markus; Wilson, Katherine E.; Anderson, Iain A.
  • SPIE Smart Structures and Materials + Nondestructive Evaluation and Health Monitoring, SPIE Proceedings https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2260361
conference May 2017
Biological lipid membranes for on-demand, wireless drug delivery from thin, bioresorbable electronic implants journal November 2015
Wearable Textile Battery Rechargeable by Solar Energy journal October 2013
Versatile Soft Grippers with Intrinsic Electroadhesion Based on Multifunctional Polymer Actuators journal November 2015
Metallic Nanowire-Based Transparent Electrodes for Next Generation Flexible Devices: a Review journal October 2016
Silver Nanowire Networks as Flexible, Transparent, Conducting Films: Extremely High DC to Optical Conductivity Ratios journal June 2009
Integration of optical waveguide on pneumatic balloon actuator for flexible scanner in endoscopic imaging diagnosis applications journal May 2016
Stretchable and Soft Electronics using Liquid Metals journal April 2017
Buckled, Stretchable Polypyrrole Electrodes for Battery Applications journal July 2011
A Graphene-Based Flexible Pressure Sensor with Applications to Plantar Pressure Measurement and Gait Analysis journal September 2017
Large-scale pattern growth of graphene films for stretchable transparent electrodes journal January 2009
Hyperbolically Patterned 3D Graphene Metamaterial with Negative Poisson's Ratio and Superelasticity journal January 2016
Origami based Mechanical Metamaterials journal August 2014
Electronic Properties of Transparent Conductive Films of PEDOT:PSS on Stretchable Substrates journal December 2011
Transparent, Conductive, and Flexible Carbon Nanotube Films and Their Application in Organic Light-Emitting Diodes journal September 2006
Highly Stretchable Alkaline Batteries Based on an Embedded Conductive Fabric journal July 2012
Large-area ultrathin films of reduced graphene oxide as a transparent and flexible electronic material journal April 2008
A 3D-printed, functionally graded soft robot powered by combustion journal July 2015
Stretchable batteries with self-similar serpentine interconnects and integrated wireless recharging systems journal February 2013
A skin-inspired organic digital mechanoreceptor journal October 2015
Electronic dura mater for long-term multimodal neural interfaces journal January 2015
Intrinsically Stretchable Polymer Light-Emitting Devices Using Carbon Nanotube-Polymer Composite Electrodes journal July 2011
Construction of Small-Diameter Vascular Graft by Shape-Memory and Self-Rolling Bacterial Cellulose Membrane journal March 2017
Wearable Electronics and Smart Textiles: A Critical Review journal July 2014
Flexible transparent conductors based on metal nanowire networks journal April 2015
Flexible, Light-Weight, Ultrastrong, and Semiconductive Carbon Nanotube Fibers for a Highly Efficient Solar Cell journal January 2011
Soft robotic glove for combined assistance and at-home rehabilitation journal November 2015
An ultra-lightweight design for imperceptible plastic electronics journal July 2013
Seamless modulus gradient structures for highly resilient, stretchable system integration journal March 2018
Fully integrated wearable sensor arrays for multiplexed in situ perspiration analysis journal January 2016
Polymer-Embedded Carbon Nanotube Ribbons for Stretchable Conductors journal June 2010
Tailored 3D Mechanical Metamaterials Made by Dip-in Direct-Laser-Writing Optical Lithography journal April 2012
Synthesis and Purification of Silver Nanowires To Make Conducting Films with a Transmittance of 99% journal September 2015
A New Type of Porous Graphite Foams and Their Integrated Composites with Oxide/Polymer Core/Shell Nanowires for Supercapacitors: Structural Design, Fabrication, and Full Supercapacitor Demonstrations journal February 2014
Superelastic wire-shaped supercapacitor sustaining 850% tensile strain based on carbon nanotube@graphene fiber journal May 2018
Pursuing prosthetic electronic skin journal July 2016
Soft robot review journal January 2017
Stretchable Organic Solar Cells journal February 2011
Solution-Processed Metal Nanowire Mesh Transparent Electrodes journal February 2008
A bioinspired flexible organic artificial afferent nerve journal May 2018
A review of fabrication and applications of carbon nanotube film-based flexible electronics journal January 2013
Fast Plasmonic Laser Nanowelding for a Cu-Nanowire Percolation Network for Flexible Transparent Conductors and Stretchable Electronics journal June 2014
Bioresorbable silicon electronic sensors for the brain journal January 2016
Recent progresses on flexible tactile sensors journal June 2017
Solution-Processed Metallic Conducting Polymer Films as Transparent Electrode of Optoelectronic Devices journal April 2012
Capacitively coupled arrays of multiplexed flexible silicon transistors for long-term cardiac electrophysiology journal March 2017
Transparent, Conductive Carbon Nanotube Films journal August 2004
Graphene kirigami journal July 2015
Miniature soft robots — road to the clinic journal April 2018
Fabrication of Highly Conductive Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) Films by Vapor Phase Polymerization and Their Application in Efficient Organic Light-Emitting Diodes journal September 2007
Polymer-metal hybrid transparent electrodes for flexible electronics journal March 2015
Ultrathin flexible piezoelectric sensors for monitoring eye fatigue journal January 2018
Transfer of Large-Area Graphene Films for High-Performance Transparent Conductive Electrodes journal December 2009
Roll-to-roll production of 30-inch graphene films for transparent electrodes journal June 2010
Ordered Zigzag Stripes of Polymer Gel/Metal Nanoparticle Composites for Highly Stretchable Conductive Electrodes journal May 2011
Aligned Carbon Nanotube Sheets for the Electrodes of Organic Solar Cells journal October 2011
Intrinsically stretchable and healable semiconducting polymer for organic transistors journal November 2016
Biocompatible and totally disintegrable semiconducting polymer for ultrathin and ultralightweight transient electronics journal May 2017
Preparation and Characterization of Flexible Asymmetric Supercapacitors Based on Transition-Metal-Oxide Nanowire/Single-Walled Carbon Nanotube Hybrid Thin-Film Electrodes journal July 2010
Translucent soft robots driven by frameless fluid electrode dielectric elastomer actuators journal April 2018
Advanced Materials and Devices for Bioresorbable Electronics journal April 2018
Thickness‐Dependent Facet Junction Control of Layered BiOIO 3 Single Crystals for Highly Efficient CO 2 Photoreduction journal October 2018
Intrinsically Stretchable and Conductive Textile by a Scalable Process for Elastic Wearable Electronics journal April 2017
Highly Stretchable, Integrated Supercapacitors Based on Single-Walled Carbon Nanotube Films with Continuous Reticulate Architecture journal December 2012
Epidermal devices for noninvasive, precise, and continuous mapping of macrovascular and microvascular blood flow journal October 2015
Fingertip skin–inspired microstructured ferroelectric skins discriminate static/dynamic pressure and temperature stimuli journal October 2015
An electrically and mechanically self-healing composite with pressure- and flexion-sensitive properties for electronic skin applications journal November 2012
Metal nanogrids, nanowires, and nanofibers for transparent electrodes journal October 2011
Dynamic kirigami structures for integrated solar tracking journal September 2015
Ror2 signaling regulates Golgi structure and transport through IFT20 for tumor invasiveness journal January 2017
Soft material for soft actuators journal September 2017
Low-Temperature Solution Processing of Graphene−Carbon Nanotube Hybrid Materials for High-Performance Transparent Conductors journal May 2009
3D Soft Metamaterials with Negative Poisson's Ratio journal July 2013
Soft robotic sleeve supports heart function journal January 2017
Novartis signs up for Google smart lens journal September 2014
Materials for multifunctional balloon catheters with capabilities in cardiac electrophysiological mapping and ablation therapy journal March 2011
Tissue–electronics interfaces: from implantable devices to engineered tissues journal November 2017
An Efficient Triple-Junction Polymer Solar Cell Having a Power Conversion Efficiency Exceeding 11% journal July 2014
Soft Robotics journal March 2018
Ultratransparent and stretchable graphene electrodes journal September 2017
Conformal piezoelectric energy harvesting and storage from motions of the heart, lung, and diaphragm journal January 2014
Scientific Importance of Water-Processable PEDOT-PSS and Preparation, Challenge and New Application in Sensors of Its Film Electrode: A Review journal February 2017
Reentrant Origami-Based Metamaterials with Negative Poisson’s Ratio and Bistability journal May 2015
Vanadium dioxide nanowire-based microthermometer for quantitative evaluation of electron beam heating journal October 2014
Ionic imbalance induced self-propulsion of liquid metals journal August 2016
The Sensory Neurons of Touch journal August 2013
Very long Ag nanowire synthesis and its application in a highly transparent, conductive and flexible metal electrode touch panel journal January 2012
Bioresorbable Electronic Stent Integrated with Therapeutic Nanoparticles for Endovascular Diseases journal April 2015

Cited By (21)

Gradually Crosslinking Carbon Nanotube Array in Mimicking the Beak of Giant Squid for Compression‐Sensing Supercapacitor journal June 2019
Scalable Fabrication of Metallic Nanofiber Network via Templated Electrodeposition for Flexible Electronics journal June 2019
Breathable and Flexible Polymer Membranes with Mechanoresponsive Electric Resistance journal January 2020
Highly Stretchable Bilayer Lattice Structures That Elongate via In‐Plane Deformation journal February 2020
Advanced Soft Materials, Sensor Integrations, and Applications of Wearable Flexible Hybrid Electronics in Healthcare, Energy, and Environment journal July 2019
A Structured Design for Highly Stretchable Electronic Skin journal August 2019
Skin‐Integrated Graphene‐Embedded Lead Zirconate Titanate Rubber for Energy Harvesting and Mechanical Sensing journal October 2019
Facile Fabrication of Ultraflexible Transparent Electrodes Using Embedded Copper Networks for Wearable Pressure Sensors journal December 2019
Transparent Magnetoelectric Materials for Advanced Invisible Electronic Applications journal August 2019
Physical sensors for skin‐inspired electronics journal December 2019
Recent progress on flexible nanogenerators toward self‐powered systems journal January 2020
3D printing of conjugated polymers journal August 2019
Lithium Titanate Cuboid Arrays Grown on Carbon Fiber Cloth for High‐Rate Flexible Lithium‐Ion Batteries journal August 2019
Material Design and Fabrication Strategies for Stretchable Metallic Nanocomposites journal February 2020
Enhanced flexibility and environmental durability of copper electrode produced with conductive ink containing silane coupling agents with diamine and ether spacer journal May 2019
A ternary SnS 1.26 Se 0.76 alloy for flexible broadband photodetectors journal January 2019
Recent progress of solution-processed Cu nanowires transparent electrodes and their applications journal January 2019
A wearable, self-adhesive, long-lastingly moist and healable epidermal sensor assembled from conductive MXene nanocomposites journal January 2020
Advanced functional materials for soft robotics: tuning physicochemical properties beyond rigidity control journal December 2019
Review—Textile Based Chemical and Physical Sensors for Healthcare Monitoring journal January 2020
Implementation of Radiating Elements for Radiofrequency Front-Ends by Screen-Printing Techniques for Internet of Things Applications journal August 2019