Physics of runaway electrons in tokamaks

Breizman, Boris N.; Aleynikov, Pavel; Hollmann, Eric M.; Lehnen, Michael

doi:10.1088/1741-4326/ab1822

Title: Physics of runaway electrons in tokamaks

Journal Article · Wed Jun 19 00:00:00 EDT 2019 · Nuclear Fusion

DOI:https://doi.org/10.1088/1741-4326/ab1822· OSTI ID:1595259

Breizman, Boris N. ^[1]; Aleynikov, Pavel ^[2]; Hollmann, Eric M. ^[3]; Lehnen, Michael ^[4]

Univ. of Texas, Austin, TX (United States)
Max-Planck-Inst. für Plasmaphysik, Greifswald (Germany)
Univ. of California - San Diego, La Jolla, CA (United States)
ITER Organization, St Paul Lez Durance (France)

This review covers basic physics ingredients of the runaway phenomenon and the ongoing efforts (experimental and theoretical) aimed at runaway electron taming in the next generation tokamaks. We emphasize the prevailing physics themes of the last 20 years: the hot-tail mechanism of runaway production, runaway electron interaction with impurity ions, the role of synchrotron radiation in runaway kinetics, runaway electron transport in presence of magnetic fluctuations, micro-instabilities of runaway electrons in magnetized plasmas, and vertical stability of the plasma with runaway electrons. Here, the review also discusses the implications of the runaway phenomenon for ITER and the current strategy of runaway electron mitigation.

View Accepted Manuscript (DOE)

Cite

Export

Save

Research Organization:: Univ. of Texas, Austin, TX (United States)

Sponsoring Organization:: USDOE Office of Science (SC), Fusion Energy Sciences (FES); ITER Organization

Grant/Contract Number:: SC0016283; FG02-04ER54742; ITER/CT/15/4300001178

OSTI ID:: 1595259

Journal Information:: Nuclear Fusion, Vol. 59, Issue 8; ISSN 0029-5515

Publisher:: IOP ScienceCopyright Statement

Country of Publication:: United States

Language:: English

Citation Metrics:

Cited by: 87 works

Citation information provided by
Web of Science

References (215)

Bremsverm�gen von Atomen mit mehreren Elektronen Bloch, F. Zeitschrift f�r Physik, Vol. 81, Issue 5-6 https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01344553	journal	May 1933
Calculation of rf current drive in tokamaks Peysson, Y.; Decker, J.; Sauter, Olivier THEORY OF FUSION PLASMAS, AIP Conference Proceedings https://doi.org/10.1063/1.3033701	conference	January 2008
Vertical Electron Cyclotron Emission Diagnostic for TCV Plasmas Eshetua, W. W.; Porte, L.; Fasoli, A. EPJ Web of Conferences, Vol. 32 https://doi.org/10.1051/epjconf/20123203011	journal	January 2012
Lagrangian Formulation of a Consistent Relativistic Guiding Center Theory Wimmel, H. K. Zeitschrift für Naturforschung A, Vol. 38, Issue 6 https://doi.org/10.1515/zna-1983-0601	journal	June 1983
Energetic electron transport in the presence of magnetic perturbations in magnetically confined plasmas Papp, G.; Drevlak, M.; Pokol, G. I. Journal of Plasma Physics, Vol. 81, Issue 5 https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022377815000537	journal	July 2015
Disruption Mitigation System Developments and Design for ITER Baylor, L. R.; Barbier, C. C.; Carmichael, J. R. Fusion Science and Technology, Vol. 68, Issue 2 https://doi.org/10.13182/FST14-926	journal	September 2015
Runaway acceleration during magnetic reconnection in tokamaks Helander, P.; Eriksson, L-G; Andersson, F. Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion, Vol. 44, Issue 12B https://doi.org/10.1088/0741-3335/44/12B/318	journal	November 2002
Determination of the parametric region in which runaway electron energy losses are dominated by bremsstrahlung radiation in tokamaks Fernández-Gómez, I.; Martín-Solís, J. R.; Sánchez, R. Physics of Plasmas, Vol. 14, Issue 7 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.2746219	journal	July 2007
Electron kinetics in a cooling plasma Helander, P.; Smith, H.; Fülöp, T. Physics of Plasmas, Vol. 11, Issue 12 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1812759	journal	December 2004
Measurements of the runaway electron energy during disruptions in the tokamak TEXTOR Forster, M.; Finken, K. H.; Lehnen, M. Physics of Plasmas, Vol. 19, Issue 5 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4717759	journal	May 2012
Recent Advances in Understanding Particle Acceleration Processes in Solar Flares Zharkova, V. V.; Arzner, K.; Benz, A. O. Space Science Reviews, Vol. 159, Issue 1-4 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11214-011-9803-y	journal	July 2011
Über die Bremsstrahlung schneller Elektronen Sauter, Fritz Annalen der Physik, Vol. 412, Issue 4 https://doi.org/10.1002/andp.19344120405	journal	January 1934
Current Dynamics during Disruptions in Large Tokamaks Eriksson, L. -G.; Helander, P.; Andersson, F. Physical Review Letters, Vol. 92, Issue 20 https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.92.205004	journal	May 2004
Overview of Runaway Electron Control and Mitigation Experiments on Tore Supra and Lessons Learned in View of ITER Saint-Laurent, F.; Martin, G.; Alarcon, T. Fusion Science and Technology, Vol. 64, Issue 4 https://doi.org/10.13182/FST13-A24090	journal	November 2013
Hamiltonian formulation of guiding center motion Littlejohn, Robert G. Physics of Fluids, Vol. 24, Issue 9 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.863594	journal	January 1981
Runaway electron generation in a cooling plasma Smith, H.; Helander, P.; Eriksson, L. -G. Physics of Plasmas, Vol. 12, Issue 12 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.2148966	journal	December 2005
Chapter 3: MHD stability, operational limits and disruptions Mhd, ITER Physics Expert Group on Disrup; Editors, ITER Physics Basis Nuclear Fusion, Vol. 39, Issue 12 https://doi.org/10.1088/0029-5515/39/12/303	journal	December 1999
Disruption mitigation by massive gas injection in JET Lehnen, M.; Alonso, A.; Arnoux, G. Nuclear Fusion, Vol. 51, Issue 12 https://doi.org/10.1088/0029-5515/51/12/123010	journal	November 2011
Magnetic field threshold for runaway generation in tokamak disruptions Fülöp, T.; Smith, H. M.; Pokol, G. Physics of Plasmas, Vol. 16, Issue 2 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.3072980	journal	February 2009
Radial transport of high-energy runaway electrons in ORMAK Zweben, S. J.; Swain, D. W.; Fleischmann, H. H. Nuclear Fusion, Vol. 18, Issue 12 https://doi.org/10.1088/0029-5515/18/12/008	journal	December 1978
Observation of Non-Maxwellian Electron Distribution Functions in the Alcator Device by Means of Thomson Scattering and Their Interpretation Pieroni, L.; Segre, S. E. Physical Review Letters, Vol. 34, Issue 15 https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.34.928	journal	April 1975
Effect of micrometric hot spots on surface temperature measurement and flux calculation in the middle and long infrared Delchambre, E.; Counsell, G.; Kirk, A. Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion, Vol. 51, Issue 5 https://doi.org/10.1088/0741-3335/51/5/055012	journal	March 2009
Chapter 3: MHD stability, operational limits and disruptions Hender, T. C.; Wesley, J. C.; Bialek, J. Nuclear Fusion, Vol. 47, Issue 6 https://doi.org/10.1088/0029-5515/47/6/S03	journal	June 2007
Über die Streuung von Strahlung durch freie Elektronen nach der neuen relativistischen Quantendynamik von Dirac Klein, O.; Nishina, Y. Zeitschrift für Physik, Vol. 52, Issue 11-12 https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01366453	journal	November 1929
Experimental Observation of a Magnetic-Turbulence Threshold for Runaway-Electron Generation in the TEXTOR Tokamak Zeng, L.; Koslowski, H. R.; Liang, Y. Physical Review Letters, Vol. 110, Issue 23 https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.110.235003	journal	June 2013
Radiation reaction induced non-monotonic features in runaway electron distributions Hirvijoki, E.; Pusztai, I.; Decker, J. Journal of Plasma Physics, Vol. 81, Issue 5 https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022377815000513	journal	July 2015
Experimental study of disruption mitigation using massive injection of noble gases on Tore Supra Reux, C.; Bucalossi, J.; Saint-Laurent, F. Nuclear Fusion, Vol. 50, Issue 9 https://doi.org/10.1088/0029-5515/50/9/095006	journal	July 2010
Mechanism of runaway electron beam formation during plasma disruptions in tokamaks Abdullaev, S. S.; Finken, K. H.; Wongrach, K. Physics of Plasmas, Vol. 22, Issue 4 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4919253	journal	April 2015
Loss of relativistic electrons when magnetic surfaces are broken Boozer, Allen H.; Punjabi, Alkesh Physics of Plasmas, Vol. 23, Issue 10 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4966046	journal	October 2016
The role of kinetic instabilities in formation of the runaway electron current after argon injection in DIII-D Lvovskiy, A.; Paz-Soldan, C.; Eidietis, N. W. Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion, Vol. 60, Issue 12 https://doi.org/10.1088/1361-6587/aae95a	journal	November 2018
Destabilization of magnetosonic-whistler waves by a relativistic runaway beam Fülöp, T.; Pokol, G.; Helander, P. Physics of Plasmas, Vol. 13, Issue 6 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.2208327	journal	June 2006
Pivotal issues on relativistic electrons in ITER Boozer, Allen H. Nuclear Fusion, Vol. 58, Issue 3 https://doi.org/10.1088/1741-4326/aaa1db	journal	January 2018
Relation of the runaway avalanche threshold to momentum space topology McDevitt, Christopher J.; Guo, Zehua; Tang, Xian-Zhu Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion, Vol. 60, Issue 2 https://doi.org/10.1088/1361-6587/aa9b3f	journal	January 2018
Impact of reflections on the divertor and first wall temperature measurements from the ITER infrared imaging system Aumeunier, M. -H.; Kočan, M.; Reichle, R. Nuclear Materials and Energy, Vol. 12 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nme.2017.02.014	journal	August 2017
Studies of Plasma Equilibrium and Transport in a Tokamak Fusion Device with the Inverse-Variable Technique Khayrutdinov, R. R.; Lukash, V. E. Journal of Computational Physics, Vol. 109, Issue 2 https://doi.org/10.1006/jcph.1993.1211	journal	December 1993
Suppression of Runaway Electrons by Resonant Magnetic Perturbations in TEXTOR Disruptions Lehnen, M.; Bozhenkov, S. A.; Abdullaev, S. S. Physical Review Letters, Vol. 100, Issue 25 https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.100.255003	journal	June 2008
Linear MHD stability analysis of post-disruption plasmas in ITER Aleynikova, K.; Huijsmans, G. T. A.; Aleynikov, P. Plasma Physics Reports, Vol. 42, Issue 5 https://doi.org/10.1134/S1063780X16050019	journal	May 2016
Runaway electron drift orbits in magnetostatic perturbed fields Papp, G.; Drevlak, M.; Fülöp, T. Nuclear Fusion, Vol. 51, Issue 4 https://doi.org/10.1088/0029-5515/51/4/043004	journal	March 2011
Model of vertical plasma motion during the current quench Kiramov, D. I.; Breizman, B. N. Physics of Plasmas, Vol. 24, Issue 10 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4993071	journal	October 2017
On the Stopping of Fast Particles and on the Creation of Positive Electrons Bethe, H.; Heitler, W. Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences, Vol. 146, Issue 856 https://doi.org/10.1098/rspa.1934.0140	journal	August 1934
Runaway electron mitigation by 3D fields in the ASDEX-Upgrade experiment Gobbin, M.; Li, L.; Liu, Y. Q. Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion, Vol. 60, Issue 1 https://doi.org/10.1088/1361-6587/aa90c4	journal	November 2017
Plasma–surface interactions during tokamak disruptions and rapid shutdowns Hollmann, E. M.; Arnoux, G.; Commaux, N. Journal of Nuclear Materials, Vol. 415, Issue 1 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnucmat.2010.10.009	journal	August 2011
�ber den Sto� zweier Teilchen unter Ber�cksichtigung der Retardation der Kr�fte M�ller, Christian Zeitschrift f�r Physik, Vol. 70, Issue 11-12 https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01340621	journal	November 1931
Canonical straight field line magnetic flux coordinates for tokamaks Li, Meng; Breizman, Boris N.; Zheng, Linjin Journal of Computational Physics, Vol. 326 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcp.2016.09.004	journal	December 2016
Observation of the loss of pre-disruptive runaway electrons in KSTAR ohmic plasma disruptions Cheon, MunSeong; Kim, Junghee; An, YoungHwa Nuclear Fusion, Vol. 56, Issue 12 https://doi.org/10.1088/0029-5515/56/12/126004	journal	September 2016
Generation and termination of runaway electrons at major disruptions in JT-60U Yoshino, R.; Tokuda, S.; Kawano, Y. Nuclear Fusion, Vol. 39, Issue 2 https://doi.org/10.1088/0029-5515/39/2/302	journal	February 1999
Theory of Two Threshold Fields for Relativistic Runaway Electrons Aleynikov, Pavel; Breizman, Boris N. Physical Review Letters, Vol. 114, Issue 15 https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.114.155001	journal	April 2015
Losses of runaway electrons in MHD-active plasmas of the COMPASS tokamak Ficker, O.; Mlynar, J.; Vlainic, M. Nuclear Fusion, Vol. 57, Issue 7 https://doi.org/10.1088/1741-4326/aa6aba	journal	May 2017
On the generation of runaway electrons and their impact to plasma facing components Kawamura, Takaichi; Obayashi, Haruo; Miyahara, Akira Fusion Engineering and Design, Vol. 9 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0920-3796(89)80007-9	journal	January 1989
Dynamics of positrons during relativistic electron runaway Embréus, O.; Hesslow, L.; Hoppe, M. Journal of Plasma Physics, Vol. 84, Issue 5 https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022377818001010	journal	October 2018
Observation of infrared synchrotron radiation from tokamak runaway electrons in TEXTOR Finken, K. H.; Watkins, J. G.; Rusbüldt, D. Nuclear Fusion, Vol. 30, Issue 5 https://doi.org/10.1088/0029-5515/30/5/005	journal	May 1990
Effect of bremsstrahlung radiation emission on fast electrons in plasmas Embréus, O.; Stahl, A.; Fülöp, T. New Journal of Physics, Vol. 18, Issue 9 https://doi.org/10.1088/1367-2630/18/9/093023	journal	September 2016
Reconstruction of distribution functions of fast ions and runaway electrons in fusion plasmas using gamma-ray spectrometry with applications to ITER Shevelev, A. E.; Khilkevitch, E. M.; Kiptily, V. G. Nuclear Fusion, Vol. 53, Issue 12 https://doi.org/10.1088/0029-5515/53/12/123004	journal	November 2013
High-Energy Runaway Electrons in the Oak Ridge Tokamak Knoepfel, H.; Zweben, S. J. Physical Review Letters, Vol. 35, Issue 20 https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.35.1340	journal	November 1975
Lifetime and universal distribution of seed runaway electrons Fontanilla, Adrian K.; Breizman, Boris N. Physics of Plasmas, Vol. 24, Issue 11 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5001931	journal	November 2017
Synchrotron radiation from a runaway electron distribution in tokamaks Stahl, A.; Landreman, M.; Papp, G. Physics of Plasmas, Vol. 20, Issue 9 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4821823	journal	September 2013
Publisher’s Note: Role of Bremsstrahlung Radiation in Limiting the Energy of Runaway Electrons in Tokamaks [Phys. Rev. Lett. 94 , 215003 (2005)] Bakhtiari, M.; Kramer, G. J.; Takechi, M. Physical Review Letters, Vol. 94, Issue 23 https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.94.239901	journal	June 2005
Numerical characterization of bump formation in the runaway electron tail Decker, J.; Hirvijoki, E.; Embreus, O. Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion, Vol. 58, Issue 2 https://doi.org/10.1088/0741-3335/58/2/025016	journal	January 2016
Runaway generation during disruptions in JET and TEXTOR Lehnen, M.; Abdullaev, S. S.; Arnoux, G. Journal of Nuclear Materials, Vol. 390-391 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnucmat.2009.01.200	journal	June 2009
Drift resonance effect on stochastic runaway electron orbit in the presence of low-order magnetic perturbations Matsuyama, A.; Yagi, M.; Kagei, Y. Nuclear Fusion, Vol. 54, Issue 12 https://doi.org/10.1088/0029-5515/54/12/123007	journal	November 2014
On the relativistic large-angle electron collision operator for runaway avalanches in plasmas Embréus, O.; Stahl, A.; Fülöp, T. Journal of Plasma Physics, Vol. 84, Issue 1 https://doi.org/10.1017/S002237781700099X	journal	January 2018
Momentum-space study of the effect of bremsstrahlung radiation on the energy of runaway electrons in tokamaks Bakhtiari, M.; Kramer, G. J.; Whyte, D. G. Physics of Plasmas, Vol. 12, Issue 10 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.2065368	journal	October 2005
Halo current, runaway electrons and disruption mitigation in ITER Putvinski, S.; Barabaschi, P.; Fujisawa, N. Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion, Vol. 39, Issue 12B https://doi.org/10.1088/0741-3335/39/12B/013	journal	December 1997
Algebraic motion of vertically displacing plasmas Pfefferlé, D.; Bhattacharjee, A. Physics of Plasmas, Vol. 25, Issue 2 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5011176	journal	February 2018
Comparison of runaway dynamics in LH and ECRH heated discharges in the Frascati Tokamak Upgrade Martín-Solís, J. R.; Esposito, B.; Sánchez, R. Nuclear Fusion, Vol. 45, Issue 12 https://doi.org/10.1088/0029-5515/45/12/007	journal	November 2005
A universal instability of many-dimensional oscillator systems Chirikov, Boris V. Physics Reports, Vol. 52, Issue 5 https://doi.org/10.1016/0370-1573(79)90023-1	journal	May 1979
Measurement of the runaway electrons in the HT-7 tokamak Chen, Z. Y.; Wan, B. N.; Lin, S. Y. Review of Scientific Instruments, Vol. 77, Issue 1 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.2140488	journal	January 2006
Measurement of runaway electron energy distribution function during high-Z gas injection into runaway electron plateaus in DIII-Da) Hollmann, E. M.; Parks, P. B.; Commaux, N. Physics of Plasmas, Vol. 22, Issue 5 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4921149	journal	May 2015
Kinetic modelling of runaway electron avalanches in tokamak plasmas Nilsson, E.; Decker, J.; Peysson, Y. Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion, Vol. 57, Issue 9 https://doi.org/10.1088/0741-3335/57/9/095006	journal	July 2015
Stopping power and range of energetic electrons in dense plasmas of fast-ignition fusion targets Solodov, A. A.; Betti, R. Physics of Plasmas, Vol. 15, Issue 4 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.2903890	journal	January 2008
Positron Creation and Annihilation in Tokamak Plasmas with Runaway Electrons Helander, P.; Ward, D. J. Physical Review Letters, Vol. 90, Issue 13 https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.90.135004	journal	April 2003
Sopra L’irradiazione Nell’urto di Particelle Veloci Racah, Giulio Il Nuovo Cimento, Vol. 11, Issue 7 https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02959918	journal	July 1934
Dynamics of Runaway Electrons in the Magnetic Field of a Tokamak Kurzan, B.; Steuer, K. -H.; Fussmann, G. Physical Review Letters, Vol. 75, Issue 25 https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.75.4626	journal	December 1995
Electron and Ion Runaway in a Fully Ionized Gas. II Dreicer, H. Physical Review, Vol. 117, Issue 2 https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRev.117.329	journal	January 1960
Modelling penetration and plasma response of a dense neutral gas jet in a post-thermal quenched plasma Parks, P. B.; Wu, W. Nuclear Fusion, Vol. 54, Issue 2 https://doi.org/10.1088/0029-5515/54/2/023002	journal	January 2014
Fuelling efficiency of massive gas injection in TEXTOR: mass scaling and importance of gas flow dynamics Bozhenkov, S. A.; Lehnen, M.; Finken, K. H. Nuclear Fusion, Vol. 51, Issue 8 https://doi.org/10.1088/0029-5515/51/8/083033	journal	July 2011
General Radiation Formulae for a Relativistic Charged Particle Moving in Curved Magnetic Field Lines: The Synchrocurvature Radiation Mechanism Cheng, K. S.; Zhang, J. L. The Astrophysical Journal, Vol. 463 https://doi.org/10.1086/177239	journal	May 1996
Runaway electrons in toroidal discharges Knoepfel, H.; Spong, D. A. Nuclear Fusion, Vol. 19, Issue 6 https://doi.org/10.1088/0029-5515/19/6/008	journal	June 1979
A numerical investigation of the effects of impurity penetration depth on disruption mitigation by massive high-pressure gas jet Izzo, V. A. Nuclear Fusion, Vol. 46, Issue 5 https://doi.org/10.1088/0029-5515/46/5/006	journal	March 2006
Energy and Angle Distribution of Electrons in Bremsstrahlung McCormick, P. T.; Keiffer, D. G.; Parzen, G. Physical Review, Vol. 103, Issue 1 https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRev.103.29	journal	July 1956
Runaway electron transport in the LT-3 tokamak Strachan, J. D. Nuclear Fusion, Vol. 16, Issue 5 https://doi.org/10.1088/0029-5515/16/5/002	journal	November 1976
The runaway electron discharge regime in the Tokamak-6 device Vlasenkov, V. S.; Leonov, V. M.; Merezhkin, V. G. Nuclear Fusion, Vol. 13, Issue 4 https://doi.org/10.1088/0029-5515/13/4/003	journal	August 1973
Pair production and bremsstrahlung of charged leptons Tsai, Yung-Su Reviews of Modern Physics, Vol. 46, Issue 4 https://doi.org/10.1103/RevModPhys.46.815	journal	October 1974
Surface temperature measurement of the plasma facing components with the multi-spectral infrared thermography diagnostics in tokamaks Zhang, C.; Gauthier, E.; Pocheau, C. Infrared Physics & Technology, Vol. 81 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.infrared.2017.01.011	journal	March 2017
Understanding the dynamics and energetics of magnetic reconnection in a laboratory plasma: Review of recent progress on selected fronts Yamada, Masaaki; Yoo, Jongsoo; Myers, Clayton E. Physics of Plasmas, Vol. 23, Issue 5 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4948721	journal	May 2016
Bremsstrahlung spectra from electron interactions with screened atomic nuclei and orbital electrons Seltzer, Stephen M.; Berger, Martin J. Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section B: Beam Interactions with Materials and Atoms, Vol. 12, Issue 1 https://doi.org/10.1016/0168-583X(85)90707-4	journal	August 1985
Runaway Positrons in Fusion Plasmas Fülöp, T.; Papp, G. Physical Review Letters, Vol. 108, Issue 22 https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.108.225003	journal	May 2012
Generation of runaway electrons during the thermal quench in tokamaks Aleynikov, Pavel; Breizman, Boris N. Nuclear Fusion, Vol. 57, Issue 4 https://doi.org/10.1088/1741-4326/aa5895	journal	February 2017
Kinetics of relativistic runaway electrons Breizman, B. N.; Aleynikov, P. B. Nuclear Fusion, Vol. 57, Issue 12 https://doi.org/10.1088/1741-4326/aa8c3f	journal	October 2017
Assessment of massive gas injection as a disruption mitigation tool in Tore Supra Bucalossi, J.; Reux, C.; Saint-Laurent, F. Journal of Nuclear Materials, Vol. 415, Issue 1 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnucmat.2011.01.045	journal	August 2011
Measurements of injected impurity assimilation during massive gas injection experiments in DIII-D Hollmann, E. M.; Jernigan, T. C.; Parks, P. B. Nuclear Fusion, Vol. 48, Issue 11 https://doi.org/10.1088/0029-5515/48/11/115007	journal	September 2008
Resolving runaway electron distributions in space, time, and energy Paz-Soldan, C.; Cooper, C. M.; Aleynikov, P. Physics of Plasmas, Vol. 25, Issue 5 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5024223	journal	May 2018
Concept development for the ITER equatorial port visible/infrared wide angle viewing system Reichle, R.; Beaumont, B.; Boilson, D. Review of Scientific Instruments, Vol. 83, Issue 10 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4734487	journal	October 2012
Study of runaway electrons with Hard X-ray spectrometry of tokamak plasmas Shevelev, A.; Kiptily, V.; Chugunov, I. FUSION REACTOR DIAGNOSTICS: Proceedings of the International Conference, AIP Conference Proceedings https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4894038	conference	January 2014
Resistive stability of a plasma with runaway electrons Helander, P.; Grasso, D.; Hastie, R. J. Physics of Plasmas, Vol. 14, Issue 12 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.2817016	journal	December 2007
The effects of Coulomb collisions on the propagation of cold‐plasma waves Brambilla, Marco Physics of Plasmas, Vol. 2, Issue 4 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.871388	journal	April 1995
Runaway electrons during tokamak startup Sharma, A. S.; Jayakumar, R. Nuclear Fusion, Vol. 28, Issue 3 https://doi.org/10.1088/0029-5515/28/3/013	journal	March 1988
Photo-neutron production in the PLT tokamak Strachan, J. D.; Meservey, E. B.; Stodiek, W. Nuclear Fusion, Vol. 17, Issue 1 https://doi.org/10.1088/0029-5515/17/1/015	journal	February 1977
Runaway electron energy measurement using hard x-ray spectroscopy in “Damavand” tokamak Rasouli, C.; Iraji, D.; Farahbod, A. H. Review of Scientific Instruments, Vol. 80, Issue 1 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.3064917	journal	January 2009
Generation of Suprathermal Electrons during Magnetic Reconnection at the Sawtooth Crash and Disruption Instability in the T-10 Tokamak Savrukhin, P. V. Physical Review Letters, Vol. 86, Issue 14 https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.86.3036	journal	April 2001
Cherenkov emission provides detailed picture of non-thermal electron dynamics in the presence of magnetic islands Causa, F.; Buratti, P.; Esposito, B. Nuclear Fusion, Vol. 55, Issue 12 https://doi.org/10.1088/0029-5515/55/12/123021	journal	November 2015
Modeling of runaway electron beams for JET and ITER Bazylev, B.; Arnoux, G.; Fundamenski, W. Journal of Nuclear Materials, Vol. 415, Issue 1 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnucmat.2010.11.086	journal	August 2011
Dissipation of post-disruption runaway electron plateaus by shattered pellet injection in DIII-D Shiraki, D.; Commaux, N.; Baylor, L. R. Nuclear Fusion, Vol. 58, Issue 5 https://doi.org/10.1088/1741-4326/aab0d6	journal	March 2018
Gamma ray imager on the DIII-D tokamak Pace, D. C.; Cooper, C. M.; Taussig, D. Review of Scientific Instruments, Vol. 87, Issue 4 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4945566	journal	April 2016
Runaway electrons in an impure plasma Cohen, Ronald H. Physics of Fluids, Vol. 19, Issue 2 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.861451	journal	January 1976
Bremsformel f�r Elektronen relativistischer Geschwindigkeit Bethe, H. Zeitschrift f�r Physik, Vol. 76, Issue 5-6 https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01342532	journal	May 1932
Visible imaging and spectroscopy of disruption runaway electrons in DIII-D Yu, J. H.; Hollmann, E. M.; Commaux, N. Physics of Plasmas, Vol. 20, Issue 4 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4801738	journal	April 2013
Three-dimensional non-linear magnetohydrodynamic modeling of massive gas injection triggered disruptions in JET Fil, A.; Nardon, E.; Hoelzl, M. Physics of Plasmas, Vol. 22, Issue 6 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4922846	journal	June 2015
Magnetic turbulence and the transport of energy and particles in tokamaks Bickerton, R. J. Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion, Vol. 39, Issue 3 https://doi.org/10.1088/0741-3335/39/3/002	journal	March 1997
JET disruption studies in support of ITER Riccardo, V.; Arnoux, G.; Cahyna, P. Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion, Vol. 52, Issue 12 https://doi.org/10.1088/0741-3335/52/12/124018	journal	November 2010
Interactions of relativistic electron beams with high atomic-number plasmas Mosher, David Physics of Fluids, Vol. 18, Issue 7 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.861219	journal	January 1975
Magnetic energy flows during the current quench and termination of disruptions with runaway current plateau formation in JET and implications for ITER Loarte, A.; Riccardo, V.; Martin-Solís, J. R. Nuclear Fusion, Vol. 51, Issue 7 https://doi.org/10.1088/0029-5515/51/7/073004	journal	May 2011
Adjoint Fokker-Planck equation and runaway electron dynamics Liu, Chang; Brennan, Dylan P.; Bhattacharjee, Amitava Physics of Plasmas, Vol. 23, Issue 1 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4938510	journal	January 2016
Pellet fuelling, ELM pacing and disruption mitigation technology development for ITER Baylor, L. R.; Combs, S. K.; Foust, C. R. Nuclear Fusion, Vol. 49, Issue 8 https://doi.org/10.1088/0029-5515/49/8/085013	journal	July 2009
On the measurement of the threshold electric field for runaway electron generation in the Frascati Tokamak Upgrade Popovic, Z.; Esposito, B.; Martín-Solís, J. R. Physics of Plasmas, Vol. 23, Issue 12 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4968839	journal	December 2016
Control and dissipation of runaway electron beams created during rapid shutdown experiments in DIII-D Hollmann, E. M.; Austin, M. E.; Boedo, J. A. Nuclear Fusion, Vol. 53, Issue 8 https://doi.org/10.1088/0029-5515/53/8/083004	journal	July 2013
Disruption mitigation studies in DIII-D Taylor, P. L.; Kellman, A. G.; Evans, T. E. Physics of Plasmas, Vol. 6, Issue 5 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.873445	journal	May 1999
Modeling of bremsstrahlung emission from the confined runaway electrons and applications to the hard x-ray monitor of ITER Pandya, Santosh P.; Core, Laura; Barnsley, Robin Physica Scripta, Vol. 93, Issue 11 https://doi.org/10.1088/1402-4896/aaded0	journal	October 2018
Stability analysis of runaway-driven waves in a tokamak Aleynikov, Pavel; Breizman, Boris Nuclear Fusion, Vol. 55, Issue 4 https://doi.org/10.1088/0029-5515/55/4/043014	journal	March 2015
The Acceleration of β-particles in Strong Electric Fields such as those of Thunderclouds Wilson, C. T. R. Mathematical Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, Vol. 22, Issue 4 https://doi.org/10.1017/S0305004100003236	journal	March 1925
exciting: a full-potential all-electron package implementing density-functional theory and many-body perturbation theory Gulans, Andris; Kontur, Stefan; Meisenbichler, Christian Journal of Physics: Condensed Matter, Vol. 26, Issue 36 https://doi.org/10.1088/0953-8984/26/36/363202	journal	August 2014
Momentum–space structure of relativistic runaway electrons Martı́n-Solı́s, J. R.; Alvarez, J. D.; Sánchez, R. Physics of Plasmas, Vol. 5, Issue 6 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.872911	journal	June 1998
The influence of an ITER-like wall on disruptions at JET de Vries, P. C.; Baruzzo, M.; Hogeweij, G. M. D. Physics of Plasmas, Vol. 21, Issue 5 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4872017	journal	May 2014
Marginal stability model for the decay of runaway electron current Breizman, Boris N. Nuclear Fusion, Vol. 54, Issue 7 https://doi.org/10.1088/0029-5515/54/7/072002	journal	April 2014
Generation and loss of runaway electrons following disruptions in JET Gill, R. D. Nuclear Fusion, Vol. 33, Issue 11 https://doi.org/10.1088/0029-5515/33/11/I03	journal	November 1993
Effect of Partially Screened Nuclei on Fast-Electron Dynamics Hesslow, L.; Embréus, O.; Stahl, A. Physical Review Letters, Vol. 118, Issue 25 https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.118.255001	journal	June 2017
Spatiotemporal Evolution of Runaway Electron Momentum Distributions in Tokamaks Paz-Soldan, C.; Cooper, C. M.; Aleynikov, P. Physical Review Letters, Vol. 118, Issue 25 https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.118.255002	journal	June 2017
Observation of runaway electrons by infrared camera in J-TEXT Tong, R. H.; Chen, Z. Y.; Zhang, M. Review of Scientific Instruments, Vol. 87, Issue 11 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4960311	journal	August 2016
Models of primary runaway electron distribution in the runaway vortex regime Guo, Zehua; Tang, Xian-Zhu; McDevitt, Christopher J. Physics of Plasmas, Vol. 24, Issue 11 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5006917	journal	November 2017
Hot tail runaway electron generation in tokamak disruptions Smith, H. M.; Verwichte, E. Physics of Plasmas, Vol. 15, Issue 7 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.2949692	journal	July 2008
Runaway electron confinement modelling for rapid shutdown scenarios in DIII-D, Alcator C-Mod and ITER Izzo, V. A.; Hollmann, E. M.; James, A. N. Nuclear Fusion, Vol. 51, Issue 6 https://doi.org/10.1088/0029-5515/51/6/063032	journal	May 2011
Theory of runaway electrons in ITER: Equations, important parameters, and implications for mitigation Boozer, Allen H. Physics of Plasmas, Vol. 22, Issue 3 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4913582	journal	March 2015
Energetics of runaway electrons during tokamak disruptions Riemann, J.; Smith, H. M.; Helander, P. Physics of Plasmas, Vol. 19, Issue 1 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.3671974	journal	January 2012
Measurements of the nonthermal x-ray emission in the T-10 tokamak using CdTe detectors Savrukhin, P. V. Review of Scientific Instruments, Vol. 73, Issue 12 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1519938	journal	December 2002
Disruptions in ITER and strategies for their control and mitigation Lehnen, M.; Aleynikova, K.; Aleynikov, P. B. Journal of Nuclear Materials, Vol. 463 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnucmat.2014.10.075	journal	August 2015
First Direct Observation of Runaway-Electron-Driven Whistler Waves in Tokamaks Spong, D. A.; Heidbrink, W. W.; Paz-Soldan, C. Physical Review Letters, Vol. 120, Issue 15 https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.120.155002	journal	April 2018
Quasilinear diffusion in stochastic magnetic fields: Reconciliation of drift‐orbit modification calculations Myra, J. R.; Catto, Peter J.; Mynick, H. E. Physics of Fluids B: Plasma Physics, Vol. 5, Issue 4 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.860906	journal	April 1993
Characterization of disruption mitigation via massive gas injection on MAST Thornton, A. J.; Gibson, K. J.; Harrison, J. R. Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion, Vol. 54, Issue 12 https://doi.org/10.1088/0741-3335/54/12/125007	journal	November 2012
The effect of resonant magnetic perturbations on runaway electron transport in ITER Papp, G.; Drevlak, M.; Fülöp, T. Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion, Vol. 54, Issue 12 https://doi.org/10.1088/0741-3335/54/12/125008	journal	November 2012
Experimental observation of hot tail runaway electron generation in TEXTOR disruptions Zeng, L.; Koslowski, H. R.; Liang, Y. Journal of Plasma Physics, Vol. 81, Issue 4 https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022377815000380	journal	April 2015
Spatially and temporally resolved measurements of runaway electrons in the TEXTOR tokamak Kudyakov, T.; Finken, K. H.; Jakubowski, M. W. Nuclear Fusion, Vol. 48, Issue 12 https://doi.org/10.1088/0029-5515/48/12/122002	journal	November 2008
The impact of the ITER-like wall at JET on disruptions de Vries, P. C.; Arnoux, G.; Huber, A. Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion, Vol. 54, Issue 12 https://doi.org/10.1088/0741-3335/54/12/124032	journal	November 2012
The precision of electron cyclotron emission measurements from DITE Tokamak Clark, W. H. M. Plasma Physics, Vol. 25, Issue 12 https://doi.org/10.1088/0032-1028/25/12/315	journal	December 1983
Impurity influx model of fast tokamak disruptions Ward, D. J.; Wesson, J. A. Nuclear Fusion, Vol. 32, Issue 7 https://doi.org/10.1088/0029-5515/32/7/I03	journal	July 1992
Electron cyclotron emission radiometer upgrade on the DIII-D tokamak Austin, M. E.; Lohr, J. Review of Scientific Instruments, Vol. 74, Issue 3 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1530387	journal	March 2003
Study of Z scaling of runaway electron plateau final loss energy deposition into wall of DIII-D Hollmann, E. M.; Commaux, N.; Eidietis, N. W. Physics of Plasmas, Vol. 24, Issue 6 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4985086	journal	June 2017
Dynamics of high energy runaway electrons in the Frascati Tokamak Upgrade Esposito, B.; Martı́n-Solı́s, J. R.; Poli, F. M. Physics of Plasmas, Vol. 10, Issue 6 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1574328	journal	June 2003
Role of Kinetic Instability in Runaway-Electron Avalanches and Elevated Critical Electric Fields Liu, Chang; Hirvijoki, Eero; Fu, Guo-Yong Physical Review Letters, Vol. 120, Issue 26 https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.120.265001	journal	June 2018
Growth and decay of runaway electrons above the critical electric field under quiescent conditions Paz-Soldan, C.; Eidietis, N. W.; Granetz, R. Physics of Plasmas, Vol. 21, Issue 2 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4866912	journal	February 2014
Runaway electrons in magnetic turbulence and runaway current termination in tokamak discharges Yoshino, R.; Tokuda, S. Nuclear Fusion, Vol. 40, Issue 7 https://doi.org/10.1088/0029-5515/40/7/302	journal	July 2000
High performance gamma-ray spectrometer for runaway electron studies on the FT-2 tokamak Shevelev, A. E.; Khilkevitch, E. M.; Lashkul, S. I. Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment, Vol. 830 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nima.2016.05.075	journal	September 2016
Note on the Radiation Field of the Electron Bloch, F.; Nordsieck, A. Physical Review, Vol. 52, Issue 2 https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRev.52.54	journal	July 1937
An in situ runaway electron diagnostic for DIII-D Wurden, G. A.; Oertel, J. A.; Evans, T. E. Review of Scientific Instruments, Vol. 85, Issue 11 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4890398	journal	November 2014
Runaway electron transport via tokamak microturbulence Hauff, T.; Jenko, F. Physics of Plasmas, Vol. 16, Issue 10 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.3243494	journal	October 2009
Islands of Runaway Electrons in the TEXTOR Tokamak and Relation to Transport in a Stochastic Field Jaspers, R.; Cardozo, N. J. Lopes; Finken, K. H. Physical Review Letters, Vol. 72, Issue 26 https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.72.4093	journal	June 1994
Runaway electron production in DIII-D killer pellet experiments, calculated with the CQL3D/KPRAD model Harvey, R. W.; Chan, V. S.; Chiu, S. C. Physics of Plasmas, Vol. 7, Issue 11 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1312816	journal	November 2000
Novel rapid shutdown strategies for runaway electron suppression in DIII-D Commaux, N.; Baylor, L. R.; Combs, S. K. Nuclear Fusion, Vol. 51, Issue 10 https://doi.org/10.1088/0029-5515/51/10/103001	journal	August 2011
On the Classical Radiation of Accelerated Electrons Schwinger, Julian Physical Review, Vol. 75, Issue 12 https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRev.75.1912	journal	June 1949
Studies of runaway electrons via Cherenkov effect in tokamaks Zebrowski, J.; Jakubowski, L.; Rabinski, M. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, Vol. 959 https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/959/1/012002	journal	January 2018
Cyclotron radiation as a diagnostic tool for tokamak plasmas Celata, C. M.; Boyd, D. A. Nuclear Fusion, Vol. 17, Issue 4 https://doi.org/10.1088/0029-5515/17/4/009	journal	August 1977
Post-disruptive runaway electron beams in the COMPASS tokamak Vlainic, Milos; Mlynar, J.; Cavalier, J. Journal of Plasma Physics, Vol. 81, Issue 5 https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022377815000914	journal	August 2015
Simultaneous measurements of pure scintillation and Cerenkov signals in an integrated fiber-optic dosimeter for electron beam therapy dosimetry Yoo, Wook Jae; Shin, Sang Hun; Jeon, Dayeong Optics Express, Vol. 21, Issue 23 https://doi.org/10.1364/OE.21.027770	journal	January 2013
Zur Theorie des Durchgangs schneller Elektronen durch Materie Møller, Chr. Annalen der Physik, Vol. 406, Issue 5 https://doi.org/10.1002/andp.19324060506	journal	January 1932
Synchrotron Radiation from the ATC Tokamak Plasma Boyd, D. A.; Stauffer, F. J.; Trivelpiece, A. W. Physical Review Letters, Vol. 37, Issue 2 https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.37.98	journal	July 1976
Electron Cyclotron Emission from a Tokamak Plasma: Experiment and Theory Costley, A. E.; Hastie, R. J.; Paul, J. W. M. Physical Review Letters, Vol. 33, Issue 13 https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.33.758	journal	September 1974
Runaway electrons and ITER Boozer, Allen H. Nuclear Fusion, Vol. 57, Issue 5 https://doi.org/10.1088/1741-4326/aa6355	journal	March 2017
An advection–diffusion model for cross-field runaway electron transport in perturbed magnetic fields Särkimäki, Konsta; Hirvijoki, Eero; Decker, Joan Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion, Vol. 58, Issue 12 https://doi.org/10.1088/0741-3335/58/12/125017	journal	November 2016
Zur Theorie des Durchgangs schneller Korpuskularstrahlen durch Materie Bethe, H. Annalen der Physik, Vol. 397, Issue 3 https://doi.org/10.1002/andp.19303970303	journal	January 1930
The kinetic theory of runaway electron beam instability in a tokamak Parail, V. V.; Pogutse, O. P. Nuclear Fusion, Vol. 18, Issue 3 https://doi.org/10.1088/0029-5515/18/3/001	journal	March 1978
Fokker-Planck simulations mylb of knock-on electron runaway avalanche and bursts in tokamaks Chiu, S. C.; Rosenbluth, M. N.; Harvey, R. W. Nuclear Fusion, Vol. 38, Issue 11 https://doi.org/10.1088/0029-5515/38/11/309	journal	November 1998
Characterization of MHD activity and its influence on radiation asymmetries during massive gas injection in DIII-D Shiraki, D.; Commaux, N.; Baylor, L. R. Nuclear Fusion, Vol. 55, Issue 7 https://doi.org/10.1088/0029-5515/55/7/073029	journal	June 2015
Magnetohydrodynamic simulations of massive gas injection into Alcator C-Mod and DIII-D plasmas Izzo, V. A.; Whyte, D. G.; Granetz, R. S. Physics of Plasmas, Vol. 15, Issue 5 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.2841526	journal	May 2008
Relativistic limitations on runaway electrons Connor, J. W.; Hastie, R. J. Nuclear Fusion, Vol. 15, Issue 3 https://doi.org/10.1088/0029-5515/15/3/007	journal	June 1975
Runaway Electrons in an Ideal Lorentz Plasma Kruskal, Martin D.; Bernstein, Ira B. Physics of Fluids, Vol. 7, Issue 3 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1711213	journal	January 1964
Spatiotemporal evolution of runaway electrons from synchrotron images in Alcator C-Mod Tinguely, R. A.; Granetz, R. S.; Hoppe, M. Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion, Vol. 60, Issue 12 https://doi.org/10.1088/1361-6587/aae6ba	journal	October 2018
Quasi-linear analysis of whistler waves driven by relativistic runaway beams in tokamaks Pokol, G.; Fülöp, T.; Lisak, M. Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion, Vol. 50, Issue 4 https://doi.org/10.1088/0741-3335/50/4/045003	journal	February 2008
Applying the new gamma ray imager diagnostic to measurements of runaway electron Bremsstrahlung radiation in the DIII-D Tokamak (invited) Cooper, C. M.; Pace, D. C.; Paz-Soldan, C. Review of Scientific Instruments, Vol. 87, Issue 11 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4961288	journal	August 2016
Collisional avalanche exponentiation of runaway electrons in electrified plasmas Jayakumar, R.; Fleischmann, H. H.; Zweben, S. J. Physics Letters A, Vol. 172, Issue 6 https://doi.org/10.1016/0375-9601(93)90237-T	journal	January 1993
Soft x-ray array system with variable filters for the DIII-D tokamak Hollmann, E. M.; Chousal, L.; Fisher, R. K. Review of Scientific Instruments, Vol. 82, Issue 11 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.3660816	journal	November 2011
Oblique electron cyclotron emission for electron distribution studies (invited) Preische, S.; Efthimion, P. C.; Kaye, S. M. Review of Scientific Instruments, Vol. 68, Issue 1 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1147841	journal	January 1997
The Scattering of Fast Electrons by Atomic Nuclei Mott, N. F. Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences, Vol. 124, Issue 794 https://doi.org/10.1098/rspa.1929.0127	journal	June 1929
Damping of relativistic electron beams by synchrotron radiation Andersson, F.; Helander, P.; Eriksson, L. -G. Physics of Plasmas, Vol. 8, Issue 12 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1418242	journal	December 2001
Effect of applied toroidal electric field on the growth/decay of plateau-phase runaway electron currents in DIII-D Hollmann, E. M.; Parks, P. B.; Humphreys, D. A. Nuclear Fusion, Vol. 51, Issue 10 https://doi.org/10.1088/0029-5515/51/10/103026	journal	September 2011
Electron Heat Transport in a Tokamak with Destroyed Magnetic Surfaces Rechester, A. B.; Rosenbluth, M. N. Physical Review Letters, Vol. 40, Issue 1 https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.40.38	journal	January 1978
Theory for avalanche of runaway electrons in tokamaks Rosenbluth, M. N.; Putvinski, S. V. Nuclear Fusion, Vol. 37, Issue 10 https://doi.org/10.1088/0029-5515/37/10/I03	journal	October 1997
Experimental Observation of Increased Threshold Electric Field for Runaway Generation due to Synchrotron Radiation Losses in the FTU Tokamak Martín-Solís, J. R.; Sánchez, R.; Esposito, B. Physical Review Letters, Vol. 105, Issue 18 https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.105.185002	journal	October 2010
Plasma shut-down with fast impurity puff on ASDEX Upgrade Pautasso, G.; Fuchs, C. J.; Gruber, O. Nuclear Fusion, Vol. 47, Issue 8 https://doi.org/10.1088/0029-5515/47/8/023	journal	July 2007
On the avalanche generation of runaway electrons during tokamak disruptions Martín-Solís, J. R.; Loarte, A.; Lehnen, M. Physics of Plasmas, Vol. 22, Issue 8 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4927773	journal	August 2015
Runaway electrons and the evolution of the plasma current in tokamak disruptions Smith, H.; Helander, P.; Eriksson, L. -G. Physics of Plasmas, Vol. 13, Issue 10 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.2358110	journal	October 2006
Space dependent, full orbit effects on runaway electron dynamics in tokamak plasmas Carbajal, L.; del-Castillo-Negrete, D.; Spong, D. Physics of Plasmas, Vol. 24, Issue 4 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4981209	journal	April 2017
Impact and mitigation of disruptions with the ITER-like wall in JET Lehnen, M.; Arnoux, G.; Brezinsek, S. Nuclear Fusion, Vol. 53, Issue 9 https://doi.org/10.1088/0029-5515/53/9/093007	journal	August 2013
Simulation of runaway electrons during tokamak disruptions Eriksson, L. -G.; Helander, P. Computer Physics Communications, Vol. 154, Issue 3 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0010-4655(03)00293-5	journal	August 2003
An ITPA joint experiment to study runaway electron generation and suppression Granetz, R. S.; Esposito, B.; Kim, J. H. Physics of Plasmas, Vol. 21, Issue 7 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4886802	journal	July 2014
Simulation of runaway electron generation during plasma shutdown by impurity injection in ITER Fehér, T.; Smith, H. M.; Fülöp, T. Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion, Vol. 53, Issue 3 https://doi.org/10.1088/0741-3335/53/3/035014	journal	February 2011
ASCOT: Solving the kinetic equation of minority particle species in tokamak plasmas Hirvijoki, E.; Asunta, O.; Koskela, T. Computer Physics Communications, Vol. 185, Issue 4 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpc.2014.01.014	journal	April 2014
Survey of disruption causes at JET de Vries, P. C.; Johnson, M. F.; Alper, B. Nuclear Fusion, Vol. 51, Issue 5 https://doi.org/10.1088/0029-5515/51/5/053018	journal	April 2011
Update on the status of the ITER ECE diagnostic design Taylor, G.; Austin, M. E.; Basile, A. EPJ Web of Conferences, Vol. 147 https://doi.org/10.1051/epjconf/201714702003	journal	January 2017
Effect of partially ionized impurities and radiation on the effective critical electric field for runaway generation Hesslow, L.; Embréus, O.; Wilkie, G. J. Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion, Vol. 60, Issue 7 https://doi.org/10.1088/1361-6587/aac33e	journal	June 2018
Status of research toward the ITER disruption mitigation system Hollmann, E. M.; Aleynikov, P. B.; Fülöp, T. Physics of Plasmas, Vol. 22, Issue 2 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4901251	journal	November 2014
Disruption scenarios, their mitigation and operation window in ITER Sugihara, M.; Shimada, M.; Fujieda, H. Nuclear Fusion, Vol. 47, Issue 4 https://doi.org/10.1088/0029-5515/47/4/012	journal	March 2007
Control of post-disruption runaway electron beams in DIII-D Eidietis, N. W.; Commaux, N.; Hollmann, E. M. Physics of Plasmas, Vol. 19, Issue 5 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.3695000	journal	May 2012
High field side measurements of non-thermal electron cyclotron emission on TCV plasmas with ECH and ECCD Blanchard, P.; Alberti, S.; Coda, S. Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion, Vol. 44, Issue 10 https://doi.org/10.1088/0741-3335/44/10/310	journal	September 2002
Experiments in DIII-D toward achieving rapid shutdown with runaway electron suppression Hollmann, E. M.; Commaux, N.; Eidietis, N. W. Physics of Plasmas, Vol. 17, Issue 5 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.3309426	journal	May 2010
Conceptual design of the radial gamma ray spectrometers system for α particle and runaway electron measurements at ITER Nocente, M.; Tardocchi, M.; Barnsley, R. Nuclear Fusion, Vol. 57, Issue 7 https://doi.org/10.1088/1741-4326/aa6f7d	journal	May 2017
Energy limits on runaway electrons in tokamak plasmas Martín-Solís, J. R.; Esposito, B.; Sánchez, R. Physics of Plasmas, Vol. 6, Issue 1 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.873276	journal	January 1999
Use of Ar pellet ablation rate to estimate initial runaway electron seed population in DIII-D rapid shutdown experiments Hollmann, E. M.; Commaux, N.; Moyer, R. A. Nuclear Fusion, Vol. 57, Issue 1 https://doi.org/10.1088/0029-5515/57/1/016008	journal	October 2016
Alcator C vertical viewing electron cyclotron emission diagnostic Kato, K.; Hutchinson, I. H. Review of Scientific Instruments, Vol. 57, Issue 8 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1138806	journal	August 1986
Plasma ion heating by cryogenic pellet injection Aleynikov, Pavel; Breizman, Boris N.; Helander, Per Journal of Plasma Physics, Vol. 85, Issue 1 https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022377818001332	journal	January 2019
Electron and Ion Runaway in a Fully Ionized Gas. I Dreicer, H. Physical Review, Vol. 115, Issue 2 https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRev.115.238	journal	July 1959
Plasma Physics and Fusion Energy Dolan, Thomas J. Fusion Science and Technology, Vol. 54, Issue 4 https://doi.org/10.13182/fst08-a1917	journal	November 2008
Generation of Suprathermal Electrons during Magnetic Reconnection at the Sawtooth Crash and Disruption Instability in the T-10 Tokamak Savrukhin, P. V. The American Physical Society https://doi.org/10.17877/de290r-6976	text	January 2001
Kinetic modelling of runaway electron avalanches in tokamak plasmas Nilsson, E.; Decker, J.; Peysson, Y. arXiv https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.1503.06082	preprint	January 2015
Energetic electron transport in the presence of magnetic perturbations in magnetically confined plasmas Papp, Gergely; Drevlak, Michael; Pokol, Gergő I. arXiv https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.1504.05074	text	January 2015
Effect of bremsstrahlung radiation emission on fast electrons in plasmas Embréus, Ola; Stahl, Adam; Fülöp, Tünde arXiv https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.1604.03331	text	January 2016
Linear MHD Stability Analysis of Post-Disruption Plasmas in ITER Aleynikova, K.; Huijsmans, G. T. A.; Aleynikov, P. Физика плазмы, Vol. 42, Issue 5 https://doi.org/10.7868/s0367292116050012	journal	January 2016

Cited By (10)

Evaluation of the Dreicer runaway generation rate in the presence of high- impurities using a neural network Hesslow, L.; Unnerfelt, L.; Vallhagen, O. Journal of Plasma Physics, Vol. 85, Issue 6 https://doi.org/10.1017/s0022377819000874	journal	December 2019
Effect of plasma elongation on current dynamics during tokamak disruptions Fülöp, T.; Helander, P.; Vallhagen, O. Journal of Plasma Physics, Vol. 86, Issue 1 https://doi.org/10.1017/s002237782000001x	journal	January 2020
Message From the Editor-in-Chief Lang, Robert J. IEEE Journal of Quantum Electronics, Vol. 43, Issue 1 https://doi.org/10.1109/jqe.2006.889696	journal	January 2007
MeV range particle physics studies in tokamak plasmas using gamma-ray spectroscopy Nocente, M.; Molin, A. Dal; Eidietis, N. Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion, Vol. 62, Issue 1 https://doi.org/10.1088/1361-6587/ab4f32	journal	November 2019
Message from the Editor-in-Chief Fasoli, Ambrogio Nuclear Fusion, Vol. 60, Issue 1 https://doi.org/10.1088/1741-4326/ab56d0	journal	December 2019
Dissipation of runaway current by massive gas injection on J-TEXT Wei, Y. N.; Yan, W.; Chen, Z. Y. Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion, Vol. 62, Issue 2 https://doi.org/10.1088/1361-6587/ab52c8	journal	November 2019
Electron runaway in ASDEX Upgrade experiments of varying core temperature Linder, O.; Papp, G.; Fable, E. Journal of Plasma Physics, Vol. 87, Issue 3 https://doi.org/10.1017/s0022377821000416	journal	May 2021
Tomographic reconstruction of the runaway distribution function in TCV using multispectral synchrotron images Wijkamp, T. A.; Perek, A.; Decker, J. Nuclear Fusion, Vol. 61, Issue 4 https://doi.org/10.1088/1741-4326/abe8af	journal	March 2021
Runaway dynamics in the DT phase of ITER operations in the presence of massive material injection Vallhagen, O.; Embreus, O.; Pusztai, I. arXiv https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2004.12861	text	January 2020
The JOREK non-linear extended MHD code and applications to large-scale instabilities and their control in magnetically confined fusion plasmas Hoelzl, M.; Huijsmans, Gta; Pamela, Sjp arXiv https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2011.09120	text	January 2020

Similar Records

Runaway electrons in tokamaks

Thesis/Dissertation · Sat Apr 01 00:00:00 EDT 2017 · OSTI ID:1595259

Liu, Chang

Nonlinear Saturation of Whistler Modes Driven by Runaway Electrons

Journal Article · Sun Jan 01 00:00:00 EST 2023 · Physics of Plasmas · OSTI ID:1595259

Breizman, Boris; Kiramov, Dmirtii

Pellet sublimation and expansion under runaway electron flux

Journal Article · Wed Jul 15 00:00:00 EDT 2020 · Nuclear Fusion · OSTI ID:1595259

Kiramov, Dmitrii I.; Breizman, Boris N.

Related Subjects

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY
thermal quench
runaway avalanche
current quench
hot tail
disruption mitigation

Title: Physics of runaway electrons in tokamaks

Citation Formats

References (215)

Cited By (10)

Similar Records

Related Subjects