Hexavalent Chromium Generation within Naturally Structured Soils and Sediments

Hausladen, Debra M.; Fendorf, Scott

doi:10.1021/acs.est.6b04039

Title: Hexavalent Chromium Generation within Naturally Structured Soils and Sediments

Abstract

Chromium(VI) produced from the oxidation of indigenous Cr(III) minerals is increasingly being recognized as a threat to groundwater quality. A critical determinant of Cr(VI) generation within soils and sediments is the necessary interaction of two low-solubility phases$$-$$Cr(III) silicates or (hydr)oxides and Mn(III/IV) oxides—that lead to its production. Here in this paper, we investigate the potential for Cr(III) oxidation by Mn oxides within fixed solid matrices common to soils and sediments. Artificial aggregates were constructed from Cr(OH)₃- and Cr_0.25Fe_0.75(OH)₃-coated quartz grains and either mixed with synthetic birnessite or inoculated with the Mn(II)-oxidizing bacterium Leptothrix cholodnii. In aggregates simulating low organic carbon environments, we observe Cr(VI) concentrations within advecting solutes at levels more than twenty-times the California drinking water standard. Chromium(VI) production is highly dependent on Cr-mineral solubility; increasing Fe-substitution (x = 0 to x = 0.75) decreases the solubility of the solid and concomitantly decreases total Cr(VI) generation by 37%. In environments with high organic carbon, reducing conditions within aggregate cores (microbially) generate sufficient Fe(II) to suppress Cr(VI) efflux. Our results illustrate Cr(VI) generation from reaction with Mn oxides within structured media simulating soils and sediments and provide insight into how fluctuating hydrologic and redox conditions impact coupled processes controlling Cr and Mn cycling.

Authors:

Hausladen, Debra M. ^[1];

^[1]

Stanford Univ., CA (United States). Dept. of Earth System Science

Publication Date:: Fri Jan 13 00:00:00 EST 2017

Research Org.:: SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory (SLAC), Menlo Park, CA (United States)

Sponsoring Org.:: USDOE Office of Science (SC), Biological and Environmental Research (BER); National Science Foundation (NSF)

OSTI Identifier:: 1353183

Grant/Contract Number:: AC02-76SF00515; DGE-114747

Resource Type:: Accepted Manuscript

Journal Name:: Environmental Science and Technology

Additional Journal Information:: Journal Volume: 51; Journal Issue: 4; Journal ID: ISSN 0013-936X

Publisher:: American Chemical Society (ACS)

Country of Publication:: United States

Language:: English

Subject:: 54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES

Citation Formats


                    Hausladen, Debra M., and Fendorf, Scott. Hexavalent Chromium Generation within Naturally Structured Soils and Sediments.  United States: N. p., 2017. 
Web.  doi:10.1021/acs.est.6b04039.

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                    Hausladen, Debra M., & Fendorf, Scott. Hexavalent Chromium Generation within Naturally Structured Soils and Sediments.  United States.  https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.6b04039

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                    Hausladen, Debra M., and Fendorf, Scott. Fri .  
"Hexavalent Chromium Generation within Naturally Structured Soils and Sediments".  United States.  https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.6b04039.  https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/1353183.

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@article{osti_1353183,

  title        = {Hexavalent Chromium Generation within Naturally Structured Soils and Sediments},

  author       = {Hausladen, Debra M. and Fendorf, Scott},

  abstractNote = {Chromium(VI) produced from the oxidation of indigenous Cr(III) minerals is increasingly being recognized as a threat to groundwater quality. A critical determinant of Cr(VI) generation within soils and sediments is the necessary interaction of two low-solubility phases$-$Cr(III) silicates or (hydr)oxides and Mn(III/IV) oxides—that lead to its production. Here in this paper, we investigate the potential for Cr(III) oxidation by Mn oxides within fixed solid matrices common to soils and sediments. Artificial aggregates were constructed from Cr(OH)3- and Cr0.25Fe0.75(OH)3-coated quartz grains and either mixed with synthetic birnessite or inoculated with the Mn(II)-oxidizing bacterium Leptothrix cholodnii. In aggregates simulating low organic carbon environments, we observe Cr(VI) concentrations within advecting solutes at levels more than twenty-times the California drinking water standard. Chromium(VI) production is highly dependent on Cr-mineral solubility; increasing Fe-substitution (x = 0 to x = 0.75) decreases the solubility of the solid and concomitantly decreases total Cr(VI) generation by 37%. In environments with high organic carbon, reducing conditions within aggregate cores (microbially) generate sufficient Fe(II) to suppress Cr(VI) efflux. Our results illustrate Cr(VI) generation from reaction with Mn oxides within structured media simulating soils and sediments and provide insight into how fluctuating hydrologic and redox conditions impact coupled processes controlling Cr and Mn cycling.},

  doi          = {10.1021/acs.est.6b04039},

  journal      = {Environmental Science and Technology},

  number       = 4,

  volume       = 51,

  place        = {United States},

  year         = {Fri Jan 13 00:00:00 EST 2017},

  month        = {Fri Jan 13 00:00:00 EST 2017}

}

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journal, February 2020

Thomas, Andrew N.; Eiche, Elisabeth; Göttlicher, Jörg
Geochemical Transactions, Vol. 21, Issue 1
DOI: 10.1186/s12932-020-00066-8

Products of Hexavalent Chromium Reduction by Green Rust Sodium Sulfate and Associated Reaction Mechanisms
journal, October 2018

N. Thomas, Andrew; Eiche, Elisabeth; Göttlicher, Jörg
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Treatment of metal (loid) contaminated solutions using iron-peat as sorbent: is landfilling a suitable management option for the spent sorbent?
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DOI: 10.1007/s11356-019-05379-5

Effects of metal cation substitution on hexavalent chromium reduction by green rust
text, January 2020

Thomas, Andrew N.; Eiche, Elisabeth; Göttlicher, Jörg
Freie Universität Berlin
DOI: 10.17169/refubium-26764

Effects of metal cation substitution on hexavalent chromium reduction by green rust
text, January 2020

Thomas, Andrew N.; Eiche, Elisabeth; Göttlicher, Jörg
Karlsruhe
DOI: 10.5445/ir/1000117455

Treatment of metal (loid) contaminated solutions using iron-peat as sorbent: is landfilling a suitable management option for the spent sorbent?
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Kasiuliene, Alfreda; Carabante, Ivan; Bhattacharya, Prosun
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DOI: 10.1007/s11356-019-05379-5

Oxidation of Cr(III)–Fe(III) Mixed-Phase Hydroxides by Chlorine: Implications on the Control of Hexavalent Chromium in Drinking Water
journal, May 2018

Chebeir, Michelle; Liu, Haizhou
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DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.7b06013

Effects of metal cation substitution on hexavalent chromium reduction by green rust
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Chromium (Cr) is a toxic metal that causes a myriad of health problems and enters the environment as a result of anthropogenic activities and/or natural processes. The toxicity and solubility of chromium is linked to its oxidation state; Cr(III) is poorly soluble and relatively nontoxic, while Cr(VI) is soluble and a known carcinogen. Solid Fe(II) in iron-bearing minerals, such as pyrite, magnetite, and green rusts, reduce the oxidation state of chromium, reducing its toxicity and mobility. However, these minerals are not the only potential sources of solid-associated Fe(II) available for Cr(VI) reduction. For example, ferric (Fe(III)) (hydr)oxides, such as goethitemore »« less
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Similar Records

Title: Hexavalent Chromium Generation within Naturally Structured Soils and Sediments

Abstract

Citation Formats

Hexavalent Chromium in the Ground Water in Paradise Valley, Arizona journal, November 1975

Chromium Geochemistry of Serpentine Soils journal, February 2004

Cr(VI) Formation Related to Cr(III)-Muscovite and Birnessite Interactions in Ultramafic Environments journal, August 2013

The fate of chromium during tropical weathering: A laterite profile from Central Madagascar journal, January 2014

A regional-scale study of chromium and nickel in soils of northern California, USA journal, August 2009

Chromate Reduction and Retention Processes within Arid Subsurface Environments journal, October 2005

Chromium, chromium isotopes and selected trace elements, western Mojave Desert, USA journal, May 2008

Solid phases in the cycling of manganese in eutrophic lakes: New insights from EXAFS spectroscopy journal, January 1997

Chromium species in the Columbia River and estuary1: Chromium species journal, November 1980

Chromium geochemistry in serpentinized ultramafic rocks and serpentine soils from the Franciscan complex of California journal, January 2004

Production of Biogenic Mn Oxides by Leptothrix discophora SS-1 in a Chemically Defined Growth Medium and Evaluation of Their Pb Adsorption Characteristics journal, January 1999

Cr(OH) 3 (s) Oxidation Induced by Surface Catalyzed Mn(II) Oxidation journal, August 2014

In Situ Characterization of Heavy Metal Surface Reactions: The Chromium Case journal, March 1992

Chromate removal from aqueous wastes by reduction with ferrous ion journal, August 1988

Kinetics of Chromate Reduction by Ferrous Iron journal, January 1996

Solubility of amorphous chromium(III)-iron(III) hydroxide solid solutions journal, July 1987

Genesis of hexavalent chromium from natural sources in soil and groundwater journal, April 2007

Oxidation state of Mn in the Mn oxide produced by Leptothrix discophora SS-1 journal, August 1988

Direct Measurement of Oxygen Profiles and Denitrification Rates in Soil Aggregates1 journal, January 1985

Chromium: History and nutritional importance journal, January 1992

Chromate Reduction by Subsurface Soils under Acidic Conditions journal, May 1991

Oxidation and toxicity of chromium in ultramafic soils in Zimbabwe journal, August 2002

Distributed microbially- and chemically-mediated redox processes controlling arsenic dynamics within Mn-/Fe-oxide constructed aggregates journal, March 2013

Natural hexavalent chromium in groundwaters interacting with ophiolitic rocks journal, November 2002

Behavior of Chromium in Soils: III. Oxidation journal, January 1979

Transport Implications Resulting from Internal Redistribution of Arsenic and Iron within Constructed Soil Aggregates journal, January 2011

Chromium Transformations in Natural Environments: The Role of Biological and Abiological Processes in Chromium(VI) Reduction journal, August 2000

A comparative study of oxidation of Cr(III) in aqueous ions, complex ions and insoluble compounds by manganese-bearing mineral (birnessite) journal, July 2009

Geogenic Cr oxidation on the surface of mafic minerals and the hydrogeological conditions influencing hexavalent chromium concentrations in groundwater journal, May 2015

Physiology and ultrastructure of Leptothrix discophora SS-1 journal, July 1986

Oxidative removal of Mn(II) from solution catalysed by the γ-FeOOH (lepidocrocite) surface journal, December 1981

X-ray absorption spectroscopic study of the sorption of Cr(III) at the oxide-water interface journal, February 1992

Occurrence of hexavalent chromium in ground water in the western Mojave Desert, California journal, July 2004

Cr(VI) genesis and dynamics in Ferralsols developed from ultramafic rocks: The case of Niquelândia, Brazil journal, February 2013

Determination of Mn valence states in mixed-valent manganates by XANES spectroscopy journal, May 2012

Reduction of Hexavalent Chromium by Amorphous Iron Sulfide journal, July 1997

Distribution of Chromium Contamination and Microbial Activity in Soil Aggregates journal, January 2003

Extent of oxidation of Cr(III) to Cr(VI) under various conditions pertaining to natural environment journal, February 2006

Mechanisms of Chromium Carcinogenicity and Toxicity journal, January 1993

Chromium(III) Oxidation by Three Poorly-Crystalline Manganese(IV) Oxides. 1. Chromium(III)-Oxidizing Capacity journal, October 2012

Iron Promoted Reduction of Chromate by Dissimilatory Iron-Reducing Bacteria journal, February 2001

Bioremediation of organic and metal contaminants with dissimilatory metal reduction journal, February 1995

Structural and compositional evolution of Cr/Fe solids after indirect chromate reduction by dissimilatory iron-reducing bacteria journal, February 2003

Surface reactions of chromium in soils and waters journal, June 1995

Chromium(III) oxidation by .delta.-manganese oxide (MnO2). 1. Characterization journal, January 1992

Natural chromium contamination of groundwater at León Valley, México journal, April 2000

Cr(VI) occurrence and geochemistry in water from public-supply wells in California journal, December 2015

Delta Chromium-53/52 isotopic composition of native and contaminated groundwater, Mojave Desert, USA journal, April 2012

Aggregate-scale spatial heterogeneity in reductive transformation of ferrihydrite resulting from coupled biogeochemical and physical processes journal, May 2010

Reduction and dissolution of manganese(III) and manganese(IV) oxides by organics: 2. Survey of the reactivity of organics journal, August 1984

Chromium(VI) generation in vadose zone soils and alluvial sediments of the southwestern Sacramento Valley, California: A potential source of geogenic Cr(VI) to groundwater journal, August 2011

Kinetics and pH Dependence of Chromium(VI) Reduction by Iron(II) journal, May 1997

Characterization of the manganese oxide produced by pseudomonas putida strain MnB1 journal, July 2003

Genetic identification of a respiratory arsenate reductase journal, August 2003

Surface-Catalyzed Chromium(VI) Reduction: Reactivity Comparisons of Different Organic Reductants and Different Oxide Surfaces journal, January 1996

Behavior of Chromium in Soils. VI. Interactions Between Oxidation‐Reduction and Organic Complexation journal, April 1983

The synthesis of birnessite, cryptomelane, and some other oxides and hydroxides of manganese journal, December 1971

Chromium Diffusion and Reduction in Soil Aggregates journal, August 2001

Occurrence of Cr(VI) in drinking water of Greece and relation to the geological background journal, January 2015

Solid speciation and availability of chromium in ultramafic soils from Niquelândia, Brazil journal, January 2006

Toxicity and Carcinogenicity of Cr(VI) in Animal Models and Humans journal, January 1997

The structure of the manganese oxide on the sheath of the bacterium Leptothrix discophora : An XAFS study journal, July 2004

XANES Evidence for Oxidation of Cr(III) to Cr(VI) by Mn-Oxides in a Lateritic Regolith Developed on Serpentinized Ultramafic Rocks of New Caledonia journal, October 2009

Kinetics of chromate reduction by ferrous ions derived from hematite and biotite at 25 degrees C journal, February 1989

Insights into controls on hexavalent chromium in groundwater provided by environmental tracers, Sacramento Valley, California, USA journal, November 2015

Potential transformations of chromium in natural waters journal, January 1975

Natural Occurrence of Hexavalent Chromium in the Aromas Red Sands Aquifer, California journal, August 2005

Characterization of extracellular Mn2+-oxidizing activity and isolation of an Mn2+-oxidizing protein from Leptothrix discophora SS-1. journal, January 1987

Spatial Patterns and Modeling of Reductive Ferrihydrite Transformation Observed in Artificial Soil Aggregates journal, September 2009

Alteration of ferrihydrite reductive dissolution and transformation by adsorbed As and structural Al: Implications for As retention journal, February 2011

Weathering and transport of chromium and nickel from serpentinite in the Coast Range ophiolite to the Sacramento Valley, California, USA journal, October 2015

Origin and mobility of hexavalent chromium in North-Eastern Attica, Greece journal, June 2012

Factors controlling the heterogeneous distribution of Cr(VI) in soil, plants and groundwater: Evidence from the Assopos basin, Greece journal, January 2011

Fungal oxidative dissolution of the Mn(II)-bearing mineral rhodochrosite and the role of metabolites in manganese oxide formation: Dissolution and oxidation of rhodochrosite by fungi journal, November 2012

BIOGENIC MANGANESE OXIDES: Properties and Mechanisms of Formation journal, May 2004

Manganese oxidation by Leptothrix discophora. journal, February 1987

The dominant role of structure for solute transport in soil: experimental evidence and modelling of structure and transport in a field experiment journal, January 2006

Hexavalent Chromium in the Ground Water in Paradise Valley, Arizona
journal, November 1975

Chromium Geochemistry of Serpentine Soils
journal, February 2004

Cr(VI) Formation Related to Cr(III)-Muscovite and Birnessite Interactions in Ultramafic Environments
journal, August 2013

The fate of chromium during tropical weathering: A laterite profile from Central Madagascar
journal, January 2014

A regional-scale study of chromium and nickel in soils of northern California, USA
journal, August 2009

Chromate Reduction and Retention Processes within Arid Subsurface Environments
journal, October 2005

Chromium, chromium isotopes and selected trace elements, western Mojave Desert, USA
journal, May 2008

Solid phases in the cycling of manganese in eutrophic lakes: New insights from EXAFS spectroscopy
journal, January 1997

Chromium species in the Columbia River and estuary1: Chromium species
journal, November 1980

Chromium geochemistry in serpentinized ultramafic rocks and serpentine soils from the Franciscan complex of California
journal, January 2004

Production of Biogenic Mn Oxides by Leptothrix discophora SS-1 in a Chemically Defined Growth Medium and Evaluation of Their Pb Adsorption Characteristics
journal, January 1999

Cr(OH) ₃ (s) Oxidation Induced by Surface Catalyzed Mn(II) Oxidation
journal, August 2014

In Situ Characterization of Heavy Metal Surface Reactions: The Chromium Case
journal, March 1992

Chromate removal from aqueous wastes by reduction with ferrous ion
journal, August 1988

Kinetics of Chromate Reduction by Ferrous Iron
journal, January 1996

Solubility of amorphous chromium(III)-iron(III) hydroxide solid solutions
journal, July 1987

Genesis of hexavalent chromium from natural sources in soil and groundwater
journal, April 2007

Oxidation state of Mn in the Mn oxide produced by Leptothrix discophora SS-1
journal, August 1988

Direct Measurement of Oxygen Profiles and Denitrification Rates in Soil Aggregates1
journal, January 1985

Chromium: History and nutritional importance
journal, January 1992

Chromate Reduction by Subsurface Soils under Acidic Conditions
journal, May 1991

Oxidation and toxicity of chromium in ultramafic soils in Zimbabwe
journal, August 2002

Distributed microbially- and chemically-mediated redox processes controlling arsenic dynamics within Mn-/Fe-oxide constructed aggregates
journal, March 2013

Natural hexavalent chromium in groundwaters interacting with ophiolitic rocks
journal, November 2002

Behavior of Chromium in Soils: III. Oxidation
journal, January 1979

Transport Implications Resulting from Internal Redistribution of Arsenic and Iron within Constructed Soil Aggregates
journal, January 2011

Chromium Transformations in Natural Environments: The Role of Biological and Abiological Processes in Chromium(VI) Reduction
journal, August 2000

A comparative study of oxidation of Cr(III) in aqueous ions, complex ions and insoluble compounds by manganese-bearing mineral (birnessite)
journal, July 2009

Geogenic Cr oxidation on the surface of mafic minerals and the hydrogeological conditions influencing hexavalent chromium concentrations in groundwater
journal, May 2015

Physiology and ultrastructure of Leptothrix discophora SS-1
journal, July 1986

Oxidative removal of Mn(II) from solution catalysed by the γ-FeOOH (lepidocrocite) surface
journal, December 1981

X-ray absorption spectroscopic study of the sorption of Cr(III) at the oxide-water interface
journal, February 1992

Occurrence of hexavalent chromium in ground water in the western Mojave Desert, California
journal, July 2004

Cr(VI) genesis and dynamics in Ferralsols developed from ultramafic rocks: The case of Niquelândia, Brazil
journal, February 2013

Determination of Mn valence states in mixed-valent manganates by XANES spectroscopy
journal, May 2012

Reduction of Hexavalent Chromium by Amorphous Iron Sulfide
journal, July 1997

Distribution of Chromium Contamination and Microbial Activity in Soil Aggregates
journal, January 2003

Extent of oxidation of Cr(III) to Cr(VI) under various conditions pertaining to natural environment
journal, February 2006

Mechanisms of Chromium Carcinogenicity and Toxicity
journal, January 1993

Chromium(III) Oxidation by Three Poorly-Crystalline Manganese(IV) Oxides. 1. Chromium(III)-Oxidizing Capacity
journal, October 2012

Iron Promoted Reduction of Chromate by Dissimilatory Iron-Reducing Bacteria
journal, February 2001

Bioremediation of organic and metal contaminants with dissimilatory metal reduction
journal, February 1995

Structural and compositional evolution of Cr/Fe solids after indirect chromate reduction by dissimilatory iron-reducing bacteria
journal, February 2003

Surface reactions of chromium in soils and waters
journal, June 1995

Chromium(III) oxidation by .delta.-manganese oxide (MnO2). 1. Characterization
journal, January 1992

Natural chromium contamination of groundwater at León Valley, México
journal, April 2000

Cr(VI) occurrence and geochemistry in water from public-supply wells in California
journal, December 2015

Delta Chromium-53/52 isotopic composition of native and contaminated groundwater, Mojave Desert, USA
journal, April 2012

Aggregate-scale spatial heterogeneity in reductive transformation of ferrihydrite resulting from coupled biogeochemical and physical processes
journal, May 2010

Reduction and dissolution of manganese(III) and manganese(IV) oxides by organics: 2. Survey of the reactivity of organics
journal, August 1984

Chromium(VI) generation in vadose zone soils and alluvial sediments of the southwestern Sacramento Valley, California: A potential source of geogenic Cr(VI) to groundwater
journal, August 2011

Kinetics and pH Dependence of Chromium(VI) Reduction by Iron(II)
journal, May 1997

Characterization of the manganese oxide produced by pseudomonas putida strain MnB1
journal, July 2003

Genetic identification of a respiratory arsenate reductase
journal, August 2003

Surface-Catalyzed Chromium(VI) Reduction: Reactivity Comparisons of Different Organic Reductants and Different Oxide Surfaces
journal, January 1996

Behavior of Chromium in Soils. VI. Interactions Between Oxidation‐Reduction and Organic Complexation
journal, April 1983

The synthesis of birnessite, cryptomelane, and some other oxides and hydroxides of manganese
journal, December 1971

Chromium Diffusion and Reduction in Soil Aggregates
journal, August 2001

Occurrence of Cr(VI) in drinking water of Greece and relation to the geological background
journal, January 2015

Solid speciation and availability of chromium in ultramafic soils from Niquelândia, Brazil
journal, January 2006

Toxicity and Carcinogenicity of Cr(VI) in Animal Models and Humans
journal, January 1997

The structure of the manganese oxide on the sheath of the bacterium Leptothrix discophora : An XAFS study
journal, July 2004

XANES Evidence for Oxidation of Cr(III) to Cr(VI) by Mn-Oxides in a Lateritic Regolith Developed on Serpentinized Ultramafic Rocks of New Caledonia
journal, October 2009

Kinetics of chromate reduction by ferrous ions derived from hematite and biotite at 25 degrees C
journal, February 1989

Insights into controls on hexavalent chromium in groundwater provided by environmental tracers, Sacramento Valley, California, USA
journal, November 2015

Potential transformations of chromium in natural waters
journal, January 1975

Natural Occurrence of Hexavalent Chromium in the Aromas Red Sands Aquifer, California
journal, August 2005

Characterization of extracellular Mn2+-oxidizing activity and isolation of an Mn2+-oxidizing protein from Leptothrix discophora SS-1.
journal, January 1987

Spatial Patterns and Modeling of Reductive Ferrihydrite Transformation Observed in Artificial Soil Aggregates
journal, September 2009

Alteration of ferrihydrite reductive dissolution and transformation by adsorbed As and structural Al: Implications for As retention
journal, February 2011

Weathering and transport of chromium and nickel from serpentinite in the Coast Range ophiolite to the Sacramento Valley, California, USA
journal, October 2015

Origin and mobility of hexavalent chromium in North-Eastern Attica, Greece
journal, June 2012

Factors controlling the heterogeneous distribution of Cr(VI) in soil, plants and groundwater: Evidence from the Assopos basin, Greece
journal, January 2011

Fungal oxidative dissolution of the Mn(II)-bearing mineral rhodochrosite and the role of metabolites in manganese oxide formation: Dissolution and oxidation of rhodochrosite by fungi
journal, November 2012

BIOGENIC MANGANESE OXIDES: Properties and Mechanisms of Formation
journal, May 2004

Manganese oxidation by Leptothrix discophora.
journal, February 1987

The dominant role of structure for solute transport in soil: experimental evidence and modelling of structure and transport in a field experiment
journal, January 2006

Identification and molecular analysis of the Leptothrix discophora SS‐1 mofA gene, a gene putatively encoding a manganese‐oxidizing protein with copper domains
journal, April 1997

Isolation, Cultural Maintenance, and Taxonomy of a Sheath-Forming Strain of Leptothrix discophora and Characterization of Manganese-Oxidizing Activity Associated with the Sheath
journal, January 1992

Distribution, Ecological Risk Assessment, and Source Identification of Heavy Metals in River Sediments from Hai River and Its Tributaries, Tianjin, China
journal, January 2020