Mechanical resilience and cementitious processes in Imperial Roman architectural mortar
Abstract
The pyroclastic aggregate concrete of Trajan’s Markets (110 CE), now Museo Fori Imperiali in Rome, has absorbed energy from seismic ground shaking and long-term foundation settlement for nearly two millenia while remaining largely intact at the structural scale. The scientific basis of this exceptional service record is explored through computed tomography of fracture surfaces and synchroton X-ray microdiffraction analyses of a reproduction of the standardized hydrated lime–volcanic ash mortar that binds decimeter-sized tuff and brick aggregate in the conglomeratic concrete. The mortar reproduction gains fracture toughness over 180 d through progressive coalescence of calcium–aluminum-silicate–hydrate (C-A-S-H) cementing binder with Ca/(Si+Al) ≈ 0.8–0.9 and crystallization of strätlingite and siliceous hydrogarnet (katoite) at ≥90 d, after pozzolanic consumption of hydrated lime was complete. Platey strätlingite crystals toughen interfacial zones along scoria perimeters and impede macroscale propagation of crack segments. In the 1,900 year old mortar, C-A-S-H has low Ca/(Si+Al) ≈ 0.45–0.75. Dense clusters of 2- to 30-µm strätlingite plates further reinforce interfacial zones, the weakest link of modern cement-based concrete, and the cementitious matrix. These crystals formed during long-term autogeneous reaction of dissolved calcite from lime and the alkali-rich scoriae groundmass, clay mineral (halloysite), and zeolite (phillipsite and chabazite) surface textures from themore »
- Authors:
-
- Univ. of California, Berkeley, CA (United States)
- Univ. of Maine, Orono, ME (United States)
- DuPont Engineering Research and Technology, Wilmington, DE (United States)
- Ufficio Fori Imperiali, Rome (Italy)
- Univ. of California, Berkeley, CA (United States); Southeast Univ., Nanjing (China)
- Univ. of California, Berkeley, CA (United States); Southeast Univ. Nanjing (China)
- Lawrence Berkeley National Lab. (LBNL), Berkeley, CA (United States)
- Cornell Univ., Ithaca, NY (United States)
- Publication Date:
- Research Org.:
- Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL), Berkeley, CA (United States)
- Sponsoring Org.:
- USDOE
- OSTI Identifier:
- 1221827
- Grant/Contract Number:
- AC02-05CH11231
- Resource Type:
- Accepted Manuscript
- Journal Name:
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
- Additional Journal Information:
- Journal Volume: 111; Journal Issue: 52; Journal ID: ISSN 0027-8424
- Publisher:
- National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC (United States)
- Country of Publication:
- United States
- Language:
- English
- Subject:
- 36 MATERIALS SCIENCE; Roman concrete; volcanic ash mortar; fracture toughness; interfacial zone; strätlingite
Citation Formats
Jackson, Marie D., Landis, Eric N., Brune, Philip F., Vitti, Massimo, Chen, Heng, Li, Qinfei, Kunz, Martin, Wenk, Hans -Rudolf, Monteiro, Paulo J. M., and Ingraffea, Anthony R. Mechanical resilience and cementitious processes in Imperial Roman architectural mortar. United States: N. p., 2014.
Web. doi:10.1073/pnas.1417456111.
Jackson, Marie D., Landis, Eric N., Brune, Philip F., Vitti, Massimo, Chen, Heng, Li, Qinfei, Kunz, Martin, Wenk, Hans -Rudolf, Monteiro, Paulo J. M., & Ingraffea, Anthony R. Mechanical resilience and cementitious processes in Imperial Roman architectural mortar. United States. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1417456111
Jackson, Marie D., Landis, Eric N., Brune, Philip F., Vitti, Massimo, Chen, Heng, Li, Qinfei, Kunz, Martin, Wenk, Hans -Rudolf, Monteiro, Paulo J. M., and Ingraffea, Anthony R. Mon .
"Mechanical resilience and cementitious processes in Imperial Roman architectural mortar". United States. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1417456111. https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/1221827.
@article{osti_1221827,
title = {Mechanical resilience and cementitious processes in Imperial Roman architectural mortar},
author = {Jackson, Marie D. and Landis, Eric N. and Brune, Philip F. and Vitti, Massimo and Chen, Heng and Li, Qinfei and Kunz, Martin and Wenk, Hans -Rudolf and Monteiro, Paulo J. M. and Ingraffea, Anthony R.},
abstractNote = {The pyroclastic aggregate concrete of Trajan’s Markets (110 CE), now Museo Fori Imperiali in Rome, has absorbed energy from seismic ground shaking and long-term foundation settlement for nearly two millenia while remaining largely intact at the structural scale. The scientific basis of this exceptional service record is explored through computed tomography of fracture surfaces and synchroton X-ray microdiffraction analyses of a reproduction of the standardized hydrated lime–volcanic ash mortar that binds decimeter-sized tuff and brick aggregate in the conglomeratic concrete. The mortar reproduction gains fracture toughness over 180 d through progressive coalescence of calcium–aluminum-silicate–hydrate (C-A-S-H) cementing binder with Ca/(Si+Al) ≈ 0.8–0.9 and crystallization of strätlingite and siliceous hydrogarnet (katoite) at ≥90 d, after pozzolanic consumption of hydrated lime was complete. Platey strätlingite crystals toughen interfacial zones along scoria perimeters and impede macroscale propagation of crack segments. In the 1,900 year old mortar, C-A-S-H has low Ca/(Si+Al) ≈ 0.45–0.75. Dense clusters of 2- to 30-µm strätlingite plates further reinforce interfacial zones, the weakest link of modern cement-based concrete, and the cementitious matrix. These crystals formed during long-term autogeneous reaction of dissolved calcite from lime and the alkali-rich scoriae groundmass, clay mineral (halloysite), and zeolite (phillipsite and chabazite) surface textures from the Pozzolane Rosse pyroclastic flow, erupted from the nearby Alban Hills volcano. The clast-supported conglomeratic fabric of the concrete presents further resistance to fracture propagation at the structural scale.},
doi = {10.1073/pnas.1417456111},
journal = {Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America},
number = 52,
volume = 111,
place = {United States},
year = {Mon Dec 15 00:00:00 EST 2014},
month = {Mon Dec 15 00:00:00 EST 2014}
}
Web of Science
Works referenced in this record:
Densification and Migration of Ions in Blast Furnace Slag-Portland Cement Pastes
journal, January 1988
- Feng, Q. L.; Lachowski, E. E.; Glasser, F. P.
- MRS Proceedings, Vol. 136
Scaling of strength and lifetime probability distributions of quasibrittle structures based on atomistic fracture mechanics: Fig. 1.
journal, June 2009
- Bažant, Zdeněk P.; Le, Jia-Liang; Bazant, Martin Z.
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, Vol. 106, Issue 28
Strätlingite formation in high-alumina cement — zeolite systems
journal, October 1995
- Ding, J.; Fu, Y.; Beaudoin, J. J.
- Advances in Cement Research, Vol. 7, Issue 28
The cracking and fracture of mortar
journal, March 1982
- Mindess, S.; Diamond, S.
- Matériaux et Constructions, Vol. 15, Issue 2
Large mafic eruptions at Alban Hills Volcanic District (Central Italy): Chronostratigraphy, petrography and eruptive behavior
journal, January 2009
- Marra, Fabrizio; Karner, Daniel B.; Freda, Carmela
- Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, Vol. 179, Issue 3-4
Scaling theory for quasibrittle structural failure
journal, August 2004
- Bazant, Z. P.
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, Vol. 101, Issue 37
The effect of silica availability on the mechanism of geopolymerisation
journal, March 2011
- Hajimohammadi, Ailar; Provis, John L.; van Deventer, Jannie S. J.
- Cement and Concrete Research, Vol. 41, Issue 3
Mechanical properties and compositional heterogeneities of fresh geopolymer pastes
journal, June 2013
- Favier, A.; Habert, G.; d'Espinose de Lacaillerie, J. B.
- Cement and Concrete Research, Vol. 48
Pressure induced reactions amongst calcium aluminate hydrate phases
journal, June 2011
- Moon, Ju-hyuk; Oh, Jae Eun; Balonis, Magdalena
- Cement and Concrete Research, Vol. 41, Issue 6
Publisher's Note
journal, March 2011
- Flatt, Robert
- Cement and Concrete Research, Vol. 41, Issue 3, p. 217
Détermination de l’énergie de rupture des mortiers et bétons par flexion «trois points» de poutres encochées
journal, July 1985
- ,
- Materials and Structures, Vol. 18, Issue 4, p. 285-285
Assessment of material characteristics of ancient concretes, Grande Aula, Markets of Trajan, Rome
journal, November 2009
- Jackson, Marie D.; Logan, John M.; Scheetz, Barry E.
- Journal of Archaeological Science, Vol. 36, Issue 11
Roman Concrete Vaulting in the Great Hall of Trajan’s Markets: Structural Evaluation
journal, December 2012
- Brune, Philip; Perucchio, Renato
- Journal of Architectural Engineering, Vol. 18, Issue 4
Explicit representation of physical processes in concrete fracture
journal, October 2009
- Landis, E. N.; Bolander, J. E.
- Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics, Vol. 42, Issue 21
Seismicity, seismogenic structures, and crustal stress fields in the greater Rome area (central Italy)
journal, January 2010
- Frepoli, A.; Marra, F.; Maggi, C.
- Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol. 115, Issue B12
Strätlingite: crystal structure, chemistry, and a reexamination of its polytpye vertumnite [Strätlingite: crystal structure, chemistry, and a reexamination of its polytpye vertumnite]
journal, December 1990
- Rinaldi, Romano; Sacerdoti, Michele; Passaglia, Eliο
- European Journal of Mineralogy, Vol. 2, Issue 6
Effect of Alumina Release Rate on the Mechanism of Geopolymer Gel Formation
journal, September 2010
- Hajimohammadi, Ailar; Provis, John L.; van Deventer, Jannie S. J.
- Chemistry of Materials, Vol. 22, Issue 18
BUILDING MATERIALS OF THE THEATRE OF MARCELLUS, ROME*: Building materials of the Theatre of Marcellus, Rome
journal, March 2011
- Jackson, M. D.; Ciancio Rossetto, P.; Kosso, C. K.
- Archaeometry, Vol. 53, Issue 4
Results of three comparative test series for determining the fracture energyG F of concrete
journal, September 1985
- Hillerborg, Arne
- Materials and Structures, Vol. 18, Issue 5
Mechanical approach in mitigating alkali-silica reaction
journal, January 2005
- Yi, C. K.; Ostertag, C. P.
- Cement and Concrete Research, Vol. 35, Issue 1
Mid-Pleistocene pozzolanic volcanic ash in ancient Roman concretes
journal, January 2010
- Jackson, Marie; Deocampo, Daniel; Marra, Fabrizio
- Geoarchaeology, Vol. 25, Issue 1
Nomenclature of the hydrotalcite supergroup: natural layered double hydroxides
journal, October 2012
- Mills, S. J.; Christy, A. G.; Génin, J. -M. R.
- Mineralogical Magazine, Vol. 76, Issue 5
Crack/fiber interaction and crack growth resistance behavior in microfiber reinforced mortar specimens
journal, August 2006
- Ostertag, C. P.; Yi, Ck.
- Materials and Structures, Vol. 40, Issue 7
Material and Elastic Properties of Al-Tobermorite in Ancient Roman Seawater Concrete
journal, May 2013
- Jackson, Marie D.; Moon, Juhyuk; Gotti, Emanuele
- Journal of the American Ceramic Society, Vol. 96, Issue 8
Does the Al substitution in C–S–H(I) change its mechanical property?
journal, January 2011
- Oh, Jae Eun; Clark, Simon M.; Monteiro, Paulo J. M.
- Cement and Concrete Research, Vol. 41, Issue 1
Alkali sorption by C-S-H and C-A-S-H gels
journal, July 2002
- Hong, Sung-Yoon; Glasser, F. P.
- Cement and Concrete Research, Vol. 32, Issue 7
Influence of slag chemistry on the hydration of alkali-activated blast-furnace slag — Part II: Effect of Al2O3
journal, January 2012
- Haha, M. Ben; Lothenbach, B.; Le Saout, G.
- Cement and Concrete Research, Vol. 42, Issue 1
The Judicious Selection and Preservation of tuff and Travertine Building Stone in Ancient Rome*
journal, August 2005
- Jackson, M. D.; Marra, F.; Hay, R. L.
- Archaeometry, Vol. 47, Issue 3
The role of calcium carbonate in cement hydration
journal, April 2007
- Matschei, T.; Lothenbach, B.; Glasser, F. P.
- Cement and Concrete Research, Vol. 37, Issue 4, p. 551-558
Multiscale characterization of chemical–mechanical interactions between polymer fibers and cementitious matrix
journal, April 2014
- Hernández-Cruz, Daniel; Hargis, Craig W.; Bae, Sungchul
- Cement and Concrete Composites, Vol. 48
Neutron powder diffraction study of the �kermanite-gehlenite solid solution series
journal, September 1992
- Swainson, IanP.; Dove, MartinT.; Schmahl, WolfgangW.
- Physics and Chemistry of Minerals, Vol. 19, Issue 3
Pozzolana and Pozzolanic Cements
book, January 1998
- Massazza, Franco
- Lea's Chemistry of Cement and Concrete
Stratlingite and Hydrogarnet from Calcium Aluminosilicate Glass Cements
journal, January 1989
- MacDowell, John F.
- MRS Proceedings, Vol. 179
Supplementary Cementitious Materials
journal, January 2012
- Snellings, R.; Mertens, G.; Elsen, J.
- Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry, Vol. 74, Issue 1
Estimating the uniaxial compressive strength of a volcanic bimrock
journal, June 2006
- Sonmez, H.; Gokceoglu, C.; Medley, E. W.
- International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences, Vol. 43, Issue 4
The fracture toughness of an Imperial Roman mortar
journal, April 2013
- Brune, P. F.; Ingraffea, A. R.; Jackson, M. D.
- Engineering Fracture Mechanics, Vol. 102
29 Si and 27 Al MASNMR Study of Stratlingite
journal, July 1995
- Kwan, Stephen; LaRosa, Judith; Grutzeck, Michael W.
- Journal of the American Ceramic Society, Vol. 78, Issue 7
Longevity of Borehole and Shaft Sealing Materials: Characterization of Ancient Cement Based Building Materials
journal, January 1983
- Langton, Christine A.; Roy, Della M.
- MRS Proceedings, Vol. 26
Supplementary cementitious materials
journal, December 2011
- Lothenbach, Barbara; Scrivener, Karen; Hooton, R. D.
- Cement and Concrete Research, Vol. 41, Issue 12
Works referencing / citing this record:
Physical and Mechanical Properties of Composites Made with Aluminous Cement and Basalt Fibers Developed for High Temperature Application
journal, January 2015
- Reiterman, Pavel; Holčapek, Ondřej; Jogl, Marcel
- Advances in Materials Science and Engineering, Vol. 2015
Time resolved alkali silicate decondensation by sodium hydroxide solution
journal, January 2020
- Dupuis, Romain; Gomes Rodrigues, Donatien; Champenois, Jean-Baptiste
- Journal of Physics: Materials, Vol. 3, Issue 1
A study on the effects of an explosion in the Pantheon of Rome
journal, June 2018
- Masi, F.; Stefanou, I.; Vannucci, P.
- Engineering Structures, Vol. 164
Large-scale micron-order 3D surface correlative chemical imaging of ancient Roman concrete
journal, February 2019
- Maragh, Janille M.; Weaver, James C.; Masic, Admir
- PLOS ONE, Vol. 14, Issue 2
Stability of strätlingite in the CASH system
journal, January 2016
- Okoronkwo, M. U.; Glasser, F. P.
- Materials and Structures, Vol. 49, Issue 10
Continuous Synthesis of Nanominerals in Supercritical Water
journal, January 2019
- Claverie, Marie; Diez‐Garcia, Marta; Martin, François
- Chemistry – A European Journal, Vol. 25, Issue 23
Environmental Impacts of Sand Exploitation. Analysis of Sand Market
journal, June 2017
- Gavriletea, Marius
- Sustainability, Vol. 9, Issue 7
Large-scale micron-order 3D surface correlative chemical imaging of ancient Roman concrete
journal, February 2019
- Maragh, Janille M.; Weaver, James C.; Masic, Admir
- PLOS ONE, Vol. 14, Issue 2
Advances in understanding alkali-activated materials
journal, December 2015
- Provis, John L.; Palomo, Angel; Shi, Caijun
- Cement and Concrete Research, Vol. 78
Towards sustainable concrete
journal, June 2017
- Monteiro, Paulo J. M.; Miller, Sabbie A.; Horvath, Arpad
- Nature Materials, Vol. 16, Issue 7