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Title: Roadmap for a sustainable circular economy in lithium-ion and future battery technologies

Abstract

Abstract The market dynamics, and their impact on a future circular economy for lithium-ion batteries (LIB), are presented in this roadmap, with safety as an integral consideration throughout the life cycle. At the point of end-of-life (EOL), there is a range of potential options—remanufacturing, reuse and recycling. Diagnostics play a significant role in evaluating the state-of-health and condition of batteries, and improvements to diagnostic techniques are evaluated. At present, manual disassembly dominates EOL disposal, however, given the volumes of future batteries that are to be anticipated, automated approaches to the dismantling of EOL battery packs will be key. The first stage in recycling after the removal of the cells is the initial cell-breaking or opening step. Approaches to this are reviewed, contrasting shredding and cell disassembly as two alternative approaches. Design for recycling is one approach that could assist in easier disassembly of cells, and new approaches to cell design that could enable the circular economy of LIBs are reviewed. After disassembly, subsequent separation of the black mass is performed before further concentration of components. There are a plethora of alternative approaches for recovering materials; this roadmap sets out the future directions for a range of approaches including pyrometallurgy, hydrometallurgy,more » short-loop, direct, and the biological recovery of LIB materials. Furthermore, anode, lithium, electrolyte, binder and plastics recovery are considered in order to maximise the proportion of materials recovered, minimise waste and point the way towards zero-waste recycling. The life-cycle implications of a circular economy are discussed considering the overall system of LIB recycling, and also directly investigating the different recycling methods. The legal and regulatory perspectives are also considered. Finally, with a view to the future, approaches for next-generation battery chemistries and recycling are evaluated, identifying gaps for research. This review takes the form of a series of short reviews, with each section written independently by a diverse international authorship of experts on the topic. Collectively, these reviews form a comprehensive picture of the current state of the art in LIB recycling, and how these technologies are expected to develop in the future.« less

Authors:
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Publication Date:
Sponsoring Org.:
USDOE
OSTI Identifier:
1957867
Alternate Identifier(s):
OSTI ID: 1902792
Resource Type:
Published Article
Journal Name:
JPhys Energy
Additional Journal Information:
Journal Name: JPhys Energy Journal Volume: 5 Journal Issue: 2; Journal ID: ISSN 2515-7655
Publisher:
IOP Publishing
Country of Publication:
United Kingdom
Language:
English

Citation Formats

Harper, Gavin D. J., Kendrick, Emma, Anderson, Paul A., Mrozik, Wojciech, Christensen, Paul, Lambert, Simon, Greenwood, David, Das, Prodip K., Ahmeid, Mohamed, Milojevic, Zoran, Du, Wenjia, Brett, Dan J. L., Shearing, Paul R., Rastegarpanah, Alireza, Stolkin, Rustam, Sommerville, Roberto, Zorin, Anton, Durham, Jessica L., Abbott, Andrew P., Thompson, Dana, Browning, Nigel D., Mehdi, B. Layla, Bahri, Mounib, Schanider-Tontini, Felipe, Nicholls, D., Stallmeister, Christin, Friedrich, Bernd, Sommerfeld, Marcus, Driscoll, Laura L., Jarvis, Abbey, Giles, Emily C., Slater, Peter R., Echavarri-Bravo, Virginia, Maddalena, Giovanni, Horsfall, Louise E., Gaines, Linda, Dai, Qiang, Jethwa, Shiva J., Lipson, Albert L., Leeke, Gary A., Cowell, Thomas, Farthing, Joseph Gresle, Mariani, Greta, Smith, Amy, Iqbal, Zubera, Golmohammadzadeh, Rabeeh, Sweeney, Luke, Goodship, Vannessa, Li, Zheng, Edge, Jacqueline, Lander, Laura, Nguyen, Viet Tien, Elliot, Robert J. R., Heidrich, Oliver, Slattery, Margaret, Reed, Daniel, Ahuja, Jyoti, Cavoski, Aleksandra, Lee, Robert, Driscoll, Elizabeth, Baker, Jen, Littlewood, Peter, Styles, Iain, Mahanty, Sampriti, and Boons, Frank. Roadmap for a sustainable circular economy in lithium-ion and future battery technologies. United Kingdom: N. p., 2023. Web. doi:10.1088/2515-7655/acaa57.
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Harper, Gavin D. J., Kendrick, Emma, Anderson, Paul A., Mrozik, Wojciech, Christensen, Paul, Lambert, Simon, Greenwood, David, Das, Prodip K., Ahmeid, Mohamed, Milojevic, Zoran, Du, Wenjia, Brett, Dan J. L., Shearing, Paul R., Rastegarpanah, Alireza, Stolkin, Rustam, Sommerville, Roberto, Zorin, Anton, Durham, Jessica L., Abbott, Andrew P., Thompson, Dana, Browning, Nigel D., Mehdi, B. Layla, Bahri, Mounib, Schanider-Tontini, Felipe, Nicholls, D., Stallmeister, Christin, Friedrich, Bernd, Sommerfeld, Marcus, Driscoll, Laura L., Jarvis, Abbey, Giles, Emily C., Slater, Peter R., Echavarri-Bravo, Virginia, Maddalena, Giovanni, Horsfall, Louise E., Gaines, Linda, Dai, Qiang, Jethwa, Shiva J., Lipson, Albert L., Leeke, Gary A., Cowell, Thomas, Farthing, Joseph Gresle, Mariani, Greta, Smith, Amy, Iqbal, Zubera, Golmohammadzadeh, Rabeeh, Sweeney, Luke, Goodship, Vannessa, Li, Zheng, Edge, Jacqueline, Lander, Laura, Nguyen, Viet Tien, Elliot, Robert J. R., Heidrich, Oliver, Slattery, Margaret, Reed, Daniel, Ahuja, Jyoti, Cavoski, Aleksandra, Lee, Robert, Driscoll, Elizabeth, Baker, Jen, Littlewood, Peter, Styles, Iain, Mahanty, Sampriti, & Boons, Frank. Roadmap for a sustainable circular economy in lithium-ion and future battery technologies. United Kingdom. https://doi.org/10.1088/2515-7655/acaa57
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Harper, Gavin D. J., Kendrick, Emma, Anderson, Paul A., Mrozik, Wojciech, Christensen, Paul, Lambert, Simon, Greenwood, David, Das, Prodip K., Ahmeid, Mohamed, Milojevic, Zoran, Du, Wenjia, Brett, Dan J. L., Shearing, Paul R., Rastegarpanah, Alireza, Stolkin, Rustam, Sommerville, Roberto, Zorin, Anton, Durham, Jessica L., Abbott, Andrew P., Thompson, Dana, Browning, Nigel D., Mehdi, B. Layla, Bahri, Mounib, Schanider-Tontini, Felipe, Nicholls, D., Stallmeister, Christin, Friedrich, Bernd, Sommerfeld, Marcus, Driscoll, Laura L., Jarvis, Abbey, Giles, Emily C., Slater, Peter R., Echavarri-Bravo, Virginia, Maddalena, Giovanni, Horsfall, Louise E., Gaines, Linda, Dai, Qiang, Jethwa, Shiva J., Lipson, Albert L., Leeke, Gary A., Cowell, Thomas, Farthing, Joseph Gresle, Mariani, Greta, Smith, Amy, Iqbal, Zubera, Golmohammadzadeh, Rabeeh, Sweeney, Luke, Goodship, Vannessa, Li, Zheng, Edge, Jacqueline, Lander, Laura, Nguyen, Viet Tien, Elliot, Robert J. R., Heidrich, Oliver, Slattery, Margaret, Reed, Daniel, Ahuja, Jyoti, Cavoski, Aleksandra, Lee, Robert, Driscoll, Elizabeth, Baker, Jen, Littlewood, Peter, Styles, Iain, Mahanty, Sampriti, and Boons, Frank. Mon . "Roadmap for a sustainable circular economy in lithium-ion and future battery technologies". United Kingdom. https://doi.org/10.1088/2515-7655/acaa57.
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@article{osti_1957867,
title = {Roadmap for a sustainable circular economy in lithium-ion and future battery technologies},
author = {Harper, Gavin D. J. and Kendrick, Emma and Anderson, Paul A. and Mrozik, Wojciech and Christensen, Paul and Lambert, Simon and Greenwood, David and Das, Prodip K. and Ahmeid, Mohamed and Milojevic, Zoran and Du, Wenjia and Brett, Dan J. L. and Shearing, Paul R. and Rastegarpanah, Alireza and Stolkin, Rustam and Sommerville, Roberto and Zorin, Anton and Durham, Jessica L. and Abbott, Andrew P. and Thompson, Dana and Browning, Nigel D. and Mehdi, B. Layla and Bahri, Mounib and Schanider-Tontini, Felipe and Nicholls, D. and Stallmeister, Christin and Friedrich, Bernd and Sommerfeld, Marcus and Driscoll, Laura L. and Jarvis, Abbey and Giles, Emily C. and Slater, Peter R. and Echavarri-Bravo, Virginia and Maddalena, Giovanni and Horsfall, Louise E. and Gaines, Linda and Dai, Qiang and Jethwa, Shiva J. and Lipson, Albert L. and Leeke, Gary A. and Cowell, Thomas and Farthing, Joseph Gresle and Mariani, Greta and Smith, Amy and Iqbal, Zubera and Golmohammadzadeh, Rabeeh and Sweeney, Luke and Goodship, Vannessa and Li, Zheng and Edge, Jacqueline and Lander, Laura and Nguyen, Viet Tien and Elliot, Robert J. R. and Heidrich, Oliver and Slattery, Margaret and Reed, Daniel and Ahuja, Jyoti and Cavoski, Aleksandra and Lee, Robert and Driscoll, Elizabeth and Baker, Jen and Littlewood, Peter and Styles, Iain and Mahanty, Sampriti and Boons, Frank},
abstractNote = {Abstract The market dynamics, and their impact on a future circular economy for lithium-ion batteries (LIB), are presented in this roadmap, with safety as an integral consideration throughout the life cycle. At the point of end-of-life (EOL), there is a range of potential options—remanufacturing, reuse and recycling. Diagnostics play a significant role in evaluating the state-of-health and condition of batteries, and improvements to diagnostic techniques are evaluated. At present, manual disassembly dominates EOL disposal, however, given the volumes of future batteries that are to be anticipated, automated approaches to the dismantling of EOL battery packs will be key. The first stage in recycling after the removal of the cells is the initial cell-breaking or opening step. Approaches to this are reviewed, contrasting shredding and cell disassembly as two alternative approaches. Design for recycling is one approach that could assist in easier disassembly of cells, and new approaches to cell design that could enable the circular economy of LIBs are reviewed. After disassembly, subsequent separation of the black mass is performed before further concentration of components. There are a plethora of alternative approaches for recovering materials; this roadmap sets out the future directions for a range of approaches including pyrometallurgy, hydrometallurgy, short-loop, direct, and the biological recovery of LIB materials. Furthermore, anode, lithium, electrolyte, binder and plastics recovery are considered in order to maximise the proportion of materials recovered, minimise waste and point the way towards zero-waste recycling. The life-cycle implications of a circular economy are discussed considering the overall system of LIB recycling, and also directly investigating the different recycling methods. The legal and regulatory perspectives are also considered. Finally, with a view to the future, approaches for next-generation battery chemistries and recycling are evaluated, identifying gaps for research. This review takes the form of a series of short reviews, with each section written independently by a diverse international authorship of experts on the topic. Collectively, these reviews form a comprehensive picture of the current state of the art in LIB recycling, and how these technologies are expected to develop in the future.},
doi = {10.1088/2515-7655/acaa57},
journal = {JPhys Energy},
number = 2,
volume = 5,
place = {United Kingdom},
year = {Mon Feb 20 00:00:00 EST 2023},
month = {Mon Feb 20 00:00:00 EST 2023}
}
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  • DOI: 10.1039/D0CP06369J

Spatial modeling of a second-use strategy for electric vehicle batteries to improve disaster resilience and circular economy
journal, September 2020

Comparative Study for Selective Lithium Recovery via Chemical Transformations during Incineration and Dynamic Pyrolysis of EV Li-Ion Batteries
journal, August 2021

  • Balachandran, Srija; Forsberg, Kerstin; Lemaître, Tom
  • Metals, Vol. 11, Issue 8
  • DOI: 10.3390/met11081240

A Review on Electric Vehicles with perspective of Battery Management System
conference, December 2018

  • Ranawat, Daisy; Prasad, M. P. R.
  • 2018 International Conference on Electrical, Electronics, Communication, Computer, and Optimization Techniques (ICEECCOT)
  • DOI: 10.1109/ICEECCOT43722.2018.9001321

Studying the Kinetics of Crystalline Silicon Nanoparticle Lithiation with In Situ Transmission Electron Microscopy
journal, September 2012

  • McDowell, Matthew T.; Ryu, Ill; Lee, Seok Woo
  • Advanced Materials, Vol. 24, Issue 45
  • DOI: 10.1002/adma.201202744

Early-Stage Lithium Recovery (ESLR) for Enhancing Efficiency in Battery Recycling
text, January 2020

Use of adapted metal tolerant Aspergillus niger to enhance bioleaching efficiency of valuable metals from spent lithium-ion mobile phone batteries
journal, October 2018

An advance review of solid-state battery: Challenges, progress and prospects
journal, September 2021

A MILP model for optimising multi-service portfolios of distributed energy storage
journal, January 2015

Laminography in the lab: imaging planar objects using a conventional x-ray CT scanner
journal, February 2019

  • Fisher, S. L.; Holmes, D. J.; Jørgensen, J. S.
  • Measurement Science and Technology, Vol. 30, Issue 3
  • DOI: 10.1088/1361-6501/aafcae

Recycling Strategies for Ceramic All-Solid-State Batteries—Part I: Study on Possible Treatments in Contrast to Li-Ion Battery Recycling
journal, November 2020

  • Schwich, Lilian; Küpers, Michael; Finsterbusch, Martin
  • Metals, Vol. 10, Issue 11
  • DOI: 10.3390/met10111523

Integrating Flotation and Pyrometallurgy for Recovering Graphite and Valuable Metals from Battery Scrap
journal, May 2020

  • Ruismäki, Ronja; Rinne, Tommi; Dańczak, Anna
  • Metals, Vol. 10, Issue 5
  • DOI: 10.3390/met10050680

On the Solubility and Stability of Polyvinylidene Fluoride
journal, April 2021

  • Marshall, Jean E.; Zhenova, Anna; Roberts, Samuel
  • Polymers, Vol. 13, Issue 9
  • DOI: 10.3390/polym13091354

On the importance of reducing the energetic and material demands of electrical energy storage
journal, January 2013

  • Barnhart, Charles J.; Benson, Sally M.
  • Energy & Environmental Science, Vol. 6, Issue 4
  • DOI: 10.1039/c3ee24040a

Historical Developments of Pyrolysis Reactors: A Review
journal, May 2017

Hydrometallurgical processing of spent lithium ion batteries (LIBs) in the presence of a reducing agent with emphasis on kinetics of leaching
journal, December 2015

Bioleaching of valuable metals Li, Co, Ni and Mn from spent electric vehicle Li-ion batteries for the purpose of recovery
journal, March 2016

Multi‐dimensional digital twin of energy storage system for electric vehicles: A brief review
journal, April 2021

  • Vandana, ; Garg, Akhil; Panigrahi, Bijaya Ketan
  • Energy Storage, Vol. 3, Issue 6
  • DOI: 10.1002/est2.242

Respiratory hazard of Li-ion battery components: elective toxicity of lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO2) particles in a mouse bioassay
journal, March 2018

  • Sironval, Violaine; Reylandt, Laurence; Chaurand, Perrine
  • Archives of Toxicology, Vol. 92, Issue 5
  • DOI: 10.1007/s00204-018-2188-x

Pyrolysis-Ultrasonic-Assisted Flotation Technology for Recovering Graphite and LiCoO 2 from Spent Lithium-Ion Batteries
journal, July 2018

Direct Recycling of Spent NCM Cathodes through Ionothermal Lithiation
journal, June 2020

  • Wang, Tao; Luo, Huimin; Bai, Yaocai
  • Advanced Energy Materials, Vol. 10, Issue 30
  • DOI: 10.1002/aenm.202001204

Vision-Guided MPC for Robotic Path Following Using Learned Memory-Augmented Model
journal, July 2021

  • Rastegarpanah, Alireza; Hathaway, Jamie; Stolkin, Rustam
  • Frontiers in Robotics and AI, Vol. 8
  • DOI: 10.3389/frobt.2021.688275

Techno-economic and environmental disassembly planning of lithium-ion electric vehicle battery packs for remanufacturing
journal, March 2020

A closed loop process for recycling spent lithium ion batteries
journal, September 2014

Hydrometallurgical recycling of EV lithium-ion batteries: Effects of incineration on the leaching efficiency of metals using sulfuric acid
journal, April 2021

Towards greener and more sustainable batteries for electrical energy storage
journal, November 2014

Chemical Transformations in Li-Ion Battery Electrode Materials by Carbothermic Reduction
journal, July 2019

  • Lombardo, Gabriele; Ebin, Burçak; St. J. Foreman, Mark R.
  • ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering, Vol. 7, Issue 16
  • DOI: 10.1021/acssuschemeng.8b06540

Task Planner for Robotic Disassembly of Electric Vehicle Battery Pack
journal, February 2021

  • Choux, Martin; Marti Bigorra, Eduard; Tyapin, Ilya
  • Metals, Vol. 11, Issue 3
  • DOI: 10.3390/met11030387

Mitigating the Impact of Thermal Binder Removal for Direct Li-Ion Battery Recycling
journal, July 2020

Cathode healing methods for recycling of lithium-ion batteries
journal, December 2019

Regeneration of LiNi1/3Co1/3Mn1/3O2 Cathode Active Materials from End-of-Life Lithium-Ion Batteries through Ascorbic Acid Leaching and Oxalic Acid Coprecipitation Processes
journal, October 2020

  • Refly, Septia; Floweri, Octia; Mayangsari, Tirta R.
  • ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering, Vol. 8, Issue 43
  • DOI: 10.1021/acssuschemeng.0c01006

Linking circular economy and digitalisation technologies: A systematic literature review of past achievements and future promises
journal, April 2022

A high-performance regenerated graphite extracted from discarded lithium-ion batteries
journal, January 2021

  • Ruan, Dingshan; Wang, Fengmei; Wu, Lin
  • New Journal of Chemistry, Vol. 45, Issue 3
  • DOI: 10.1039/D0NJ05434H

Recycling End-of-Life Electric Vehicle Lithium-Ion Batteries
journal, November 2019

Recycling Potential of Lithium–Sulfur Batteries—A First Concept Using Thermal and Hydrometallurgical Methods
journal, November 2020

  • Schwich, Lilian; Sabarny, Paul; Friedrich, Bernd
  • Metals, Vol. 10, Issue 11
  • DOI: 10.3390/met10111513

Bioadsorption of Rare Earth Elements through Cell Surface Display of Lanthanide Binding Tags
journal, February 2016

  • Park, Dan M.; Reed, David W.; Yung, Mimi C.
  • Environmental Science & Technology, Vol. 50, Issue 5
  • DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.5b06129

Data-driven health estimation and lifetime prediction of lithium-ion batteries: A review
journal, October 2019

Capacity detection of electric vehicle lithium-ion batteries based on X-ray computed tomography
journal, January 2018

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