Designing Anion-Exchange Ionomers with Oriented Nanoscale Phase Separation at a Silver Interface

Buggy, Nora C.; Du, Yifeng; Kuo, Mei-Chen; Seifert, Soenke; Gasvoda, Ryan J.; Agarwal, Sumit; Coughlin, E. Bryan; Herring, Andrew M.

doi:10.1021/acs.jpcc.1c06036

Title: Designing Anion-Exchange Ionomers with Oriented Nanoscale Phase Separation at a Silver Interface

Journal Article · 09 September 2021 · Journal of Physical Chemistry. C

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jpcc.1c06036 · OSTI ID:1869170

^[1]; Du, Yifeng ^[2]; Kuo, Mei-Chen ^[1]; Seifert, Soenke ^[3]; Gasvoda, Ryan J. ^[1];

^[1];

^[2];

^[1]

Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO (United States)
Univ. of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA (United States)
Argonne National Lab. (ANL), Lemont, IL (United States)

We report performance of polymer electrolyte-based energy systems is significantly impacted by transport within the electrode catalyst layer, where ionomer thin films coat catalyst particles. Proton exchange ionomer thin films have been thoroughly characterized, but few studies have critically examined anion-exchange ionomer (AEI) thin films. Further, none have reported nanoscale phase separation for hydrocarbon AEIs, which is critical to mitigate transport resistances. In this work, a set of hydrocarbon-based AEIs with nanoscale phase separation are developed from tunable block copolymer systems composed of polyisoprene (PIp) and polychloromethylstyrene (PCMS). The effect of the PIp/PCMS ratio, architecture, and thickness on the thin-film morphology of the neutral block copolymer precursors on silicon and silver substrates is investigated using grazing-incidence small-angle X-ray scattering (GISAXS) and atomic force microscopy (AFM). AEIs are prepared by quaternizing with trimethylamine or methylpiperidine and their cation-dependent morphology is characterized at 60 °C and 95% RH. A perpendicularly aligned morphology is observed on silver, while no phase separation is observed on silicon, indicating that silver-polymer interfacial interactions drive phase separation. After quaternization, dipole-dipole interactions induce some disorder, but nanoscale phase separation is still maintained. GISAXS patterns are modeled using a Unified Fit approach to understand water uptake and swelling, and recommendations for AEI design are presented.

View Accepted Manuscript (DOE)

Cite

Export

Save

Research Organization:: Argonne National Laboratory (ANL), Lemont, IL (United States)

Sponsoring Organization:: USDOE Office of Science (SC), Basic Energy Sciences (BES); Army Research Office (ARO)

Grant/Contract Number:: AC02-06CH11357

OSTI ID:: 1869170

Journal Information:: Journal of Physical Chemistry. C, Journal Name: Journal of Physical Chemistry. C Journal Issue: 37 Vol. 125; ISSN 1932-7447

Publisher:: American Chemical SocietyCopyright Statement

Country of Publication:: United States

Language:: English

References (85)

Principles of Polymerization Odian, George https://doi.org/10.1002/047147875X	book	January 2004
Impact of Substrate and Processing on Confinement of Nafion Thin Films Kusoglu, Ahmet; Kushner, Douglas; Paul, Devproshad K. Advanced Functional Materials, Vol. 24, Issue 30 https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.201304311	journal	April 2014
Nanostructure/Swelling Relationships of Bulk and Thin-Film PFSA Ionomers Kusoglu, Ahmet; Dursch, Thomas J.; Weber, Adam Z. Advanced Functional Materials, Vol. 26, Issue 27 https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.201600861	journal	May 2016
Substrate‐Dependent Molecular and Nanostructural Orientation of Nafion Thin Films Kushner, Douglas I.; Kusoglu, Ahmet; Podraza, Nikolas J. Advanced Functional Materials, Vol. 29, Issue 37 https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.201902699	journal	July 2019
Anion Exchange Ionomers: Impact of Chemistry on Thin‐Film Properties Luo, Xiaoyan; Kushner, Douglas I.; Li, Jonathan Advanced Functional Materials https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202008778	journal	March 2021
Control of Domain Orientation in Block Copolymer Electrolyte Membranes at the Interface with Humid Air Park, Moon Jeong; Kim, Suhan; Minor, Andrew M. Advanced Materials, Vol. 21, Issue 2 https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.200801613	journal	January 2009
Structure-Morphology-Property Relationships of Non-Perfluorinated Proton-Conducting Membranes Peckham, Timothy J.; Holdcroft, Steven Advanced Materials, Vol. 22, Issue 42 https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201001164	journal	September 2010
Polymers for Battery Applications—Active Materials, Membranes, and Binders Saal, Adrian; Hagemann, Tino; Schubert, Ulrich S. Advanced Energy Materials https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.202001984	journal	September 2020
Achieving High‐Performance and 2000 h Stability in Anion Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells by Manipulating Ionomer Properties and Electrode Optimization Ul Hassan, Noor; Mandal, Mrinmay; Huang, Garrett Advanced Energy Materials, Vol. 10, Issue 40 https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.202001986	journal	September 2020
Alkaline Stability of Quaternary Ammonium Cations for Alkaline Fuel Cell Membranes and Ionic Liquids Marino, M. G.; Kreuer, K. D. ChemSusChem, Vol. 8, Issue 3 https://doi.org/10.1002/cssc.201403022	journal	November 2014
Soluble Polystyrene-b-poly (ethylene/butylene)-b-polystyrene Based Ionomer for Anion Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells Operating at 70 °C Gupta, G.; Scott, K.; Mamlouk, M. Fuel Cells, Vol. 18, Issue 2 https://doi.org/10.1002/fuce.201700176	journal	April 2018
Side Chain Influence on the Mechanical Properties and Water Uptake of Confined Comb-Shaped Cationic Polymer Thin Films Kushner, Douglas I.; Zhu, Liang; Kusoglu, Ahmet Macromolecular Chemistry and Physics, Vol. 217, Issue 21 https://doi.org/10.1002/macp.201600254	journal	August 2016
Molecular Weight Effects on the Glass Transition and Confinement Behavior of Polymer Thin Films Xia, Wenjie; Hsu, David D.; Keten, Sinan Macromolecular Rapid Communications, Vol. 36, Issue 15 https://doi.org/10.1002/marc.201500194	journal	June 2015
AB and ABA type butyl acrylate and styrene block copolymers via RAFT-mediated miniemulsion polymerization Bowes, A.; Mcleary, J. B.; Sanderson, R. D. Journal of Polymer Science Part A: Polymer Chemistry, Vol. 45, Issue 4 https://doi.org/10.1002/pola.21827	journal	January 2007
Synthesis and structure-conductivity relationship of polystyrene- block -poly(vinyl benzyl trimethylammonium) for alkaline anion exchange membrane fuel cells Tsai, Tsung-Han; Maes, Ashley M.; Vandiver, Melissa A. Journal of Polymer Science Part B: Polymer Physics, Vol. 51, Issue 24 https://doi.org/10.1002/polb.23170	journal	September 2012
Electrochemical behaviour of Pt(111) in alkaline media. Effect of specific adsorption of anions Morallón, Emilia; Vázquez, José Luis; Aldaz, Antonio Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry, Vol. 334, Issue 1-2 https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-0728(92)80581-N	journal	September 1992
Self-assembly of block copolymer thin films Albert, Julie N. L.; Epps, Thomas H. Materials Today, Vol. 13, Issue 6, p. 24-33 https://doi.org/10.1016/S1369-7021(10)70106-1	journal	June 2010
PEFC catalyst layer: Recent advances in materials, microstructural characterization, and modeling Karan, Kunal Current Opinion in Electrochemistry, Vol. 5, Issue 1 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coelec.2017.08.018	journal	October 2017
Towards the understanding of proton conduction mechanism in PEMFC catalyst layer: Conductivity of adsorbed Nafion films Paul, Devproshad K.; Fraser, Andrew; Karan, Kunal Electrochemistry Communications, Vol. 13, Issue 8 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.elecom.2011.04.022	journal	August 2011
Selective anion exchange membranes for high coulombic efficiency vanadium redox flow batteries Chen, Dongyang; Hickner, Michael A.; Agar, Ertan Electrochemistry Communications, Vol. 26 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.elecom.2012.10.007	journal	January 2013
Non-precious nickel-based catalysts for hydrogen oxidation reaction in alkaline electrolyte Zhou, Zhihang; Liu, Yuanjun; Zhang, Junhao Electrochemistry Communications, Vol. 121 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.elecom.2020.106871	journal	December 2020
Humidity and Temperature Dependences of Oxygen Transport Resistance of Nafion Thin Film on Platinum Electrode Kudo, Kenji; Jinnouchi, Ryosuke; Morimoto, Yu Electrochimica Acta, Vol. 209 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2016.04.023	journal	August 2016
Glass transition temperature modification of acrylic and dienic type copolymers of 4-chloromethyl styrene with incorporation of (Me3Si)3C– groups Safa, Kazem D.; Babazadeh, Mirzaagha European Polymer Journal, Vol. 40, Issue 8 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2004.04.005	journal	August 2004
Effect of humidity on the interaction of CO2 with alkaline anion exchange membranes probed using the quartz crystal microbalance Bharath, V. J.; Jervis, J. R.; Bailey, J. J. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, Vol. 42, Issue 38 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2017.07.142	journal	September 2017
Novel nanostructured high-performance anion exchange ionomers for anion exchange membrane fuel cells Sun, Lu; Guo, Junsong; Zhou, Jie Journal of Power Sources, Vol. 202 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2011.11.023	journal	March 2012
Oxygen permeability of cast ionomer films from chronoamperometry on microelectrodes Chlistunoff, Jerzy Journal of Power Sources, Vol. 245 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2013.06.128	journal	January 2014
Performance of polyethylene based radiation grafted anion exchange membrane with polystyrene-b-poly (ethylene/butylene)-b-polystyrene based ionomer using NiCo2O4 catalyst for water electrolysis Gupta, Gaurav; Scott, Keith; Mamlouk, Mohamed Journal of Power Sources, Vol. 375 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2017.07.026	journal	January 2018
Review of cell performance in anion exchange membrane fuel cells Dekel, Dario R. Journal of Power Sources, Vol. 375 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2017.07.117	journal	January 2018
Substrate effect on the swelling and water sorption of Nafion nanomembranes Abuin, Graciela C.; Cecilia Fuertes, M.; Corti, Horacio R. Journal of Membrane Science, Vol. 428 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2012.10.060	journal	February 2013
Structure, physical properties, and molecule transport of gas, liquid, and ions within a pentablock copolymer Fan, Yanfang; Zhang, Mingqiang; Moore, Robert B. Journal of Membrane Science, Vol. 464 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2014.04.011	journal	August 2014
Measurement of water uptake in thin-film Nafion and anion alkaline exchange membranes using the quartz crystal microbalance Bharath, V. J.; Millichamp, J.; Neville, T. P. Journal of Membrane Science, Vol. 497 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2015.09.027	journal	January 2016
Effect of morphology on anion conductive properties in self-assembled polystyrene-based copolymer membranes Tuli, Sayema K.; Roy, Asa L.; Elgammal, Ramez A. Journal of Membrane Science, Vol. 565 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2018.08.028	journal	November 2018
Small-angle scattering of block copolymers Hamley, Ian W.; Castelletto, Valeria Progress in Polymer Science, Vol. 29, Issue 9 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2004.06.001	journal	September 2004
Ordering in thin films of block copolymers: Fundamentals to potential applications Hamley, I. W. Progress in Polymer Science, Vol. 34, Issue 11 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2009.06.003	journal	November 2009
Low cost hydrogen production by anion exchange membrane electrolysis: A review Vincent, Immanuel; Bessarabov, Dmitri Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Vol. 81 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.05.258	journal	January 2018
Thin, robust, and chemically stable photo-cross-linked anion exchange membranes based on a polychlorostyrene-b-polycyclooctene-b-polychlorostyrene ABA triblock polymer Liu, Ye; Pandey, Tara P.; Sarode, Himanshu N. Solid State Ionics, Vol. 316 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssi.2017.12.031	journal	March 2018
New Insights into Perfluorinated Sulfonic-Acid Ionomers Kusoglu, Ahmet; Weber, Adam Z. Chemical Reviews, Vol. 117, Issue 3 https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemrev.6b00159	journal	January 2017
Hydrocarbon-Based Polymer Electrolyte Membranes: Importance of Morphology on Ion Transport and Membrane Stability Shin, Dong Won; Guiver, Michael D.; Lee, Young Moo Chemical Reviews, Vol. 117, Issue 6 https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemrev.6b00586	journal	March 2017
Water Content and Ionic Conductivity of Thin Films of Different Anionic Forms of Anion Conducting Ionomers Shrivastava, Udit N.; Zhegur-Khais, Avital; Bass, Maria The Journal of Physical Chemistry C, Vol. 124, Issue 43 https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jpcc.0c04278	journal	August 2020
Interfacial Structure and Proton Conductivity of Nafion at the Pt-Deposited Surface Ono, Yutaro; Nagao, Yuki Langmuir, Vol. 32, Issue 1 https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.langmuir.5b02623	journal	December 2015
Morphology Changes in Perfluorosulfonated Ionomer from Thickness and Thermal Treatment Conditions Gao, Xiao; Yamamoto, Kentaro; Hirai, Tomoyasu Langmuir, Vol. 36, Issue 14 https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.langmuir.9b03564	journal	March 2020
50th Anniversary Perspective : RAFT Polymerization—A User Guide Perrier, Sébastien Macromolecules, Vol. 50, Issue 19 https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.macromol.7b00767	journal	September 2017
Phosphonium-Containing Block Copolymer Anion Exchange Membranes: Effect of Quaternization Level on Bulk and Surface Morphologies at Hydrated and Dehydrated States Barnes, Austin M.; Du, Yifeng; Zhang, Wenxu Macromolecules, Vol. 52, Issue 16 https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.macromol.9b00665	journal	August 2019
A Polyethylene-Based Triblock Copolymer Anion Exchange Membrane with High Conductivity and Practical Mechanical Properties Buggy, Nora C.; Du, Yifeng; Kuo, Mei-Chen ACS Applied Polymer Materials, Vol. 2, Issue 3 https://doi.org/10.1021/acsapm.9b01182	journal	February 2020
Charge Density Gradients of Polymer Thin Film by Gaseous Phase Quaternization Ko, Yeongun; Christau, Stephanie; von Klitzing, Regine ACS Macro Letters, Vol. 9, Issue 2 https://doi.org/10.1021/acsmacrolett.9b00930	journal	January 2020
Fuel Cell Catalyst Layers: A Polymer Science Perspective Holdcroft, Steven Chemistry of Materials, Vol. 26, Issue 1 https://doi.org/10.1021/cm401445h	journal	July 2013
Interplay Between Hydroxyl Density and Relaxations in Poly(vinylbenzyltrimethylammonium)- b -poly(methylbutylene) Membranes for Electrochemical Applications Vezzù, Keti; Maes, Ashley M.; Bertasi, Federico Journal of the American Chemical Society, Vol. 140, Issue 4 https://doi.org/10.1021/jacs.7b10524	journal	January 2018
Interfacial Water Transport Measurements in Nafion Thin Films Using a Quartz-Crystal Microbalance Kongkanand, Anusorn The Journal of Physical Chemistry C, Vol. 115, Issue 22 https://doi.org/10.1021/jp2028214	journal	May 2011
Conductivity and Wettability Changes of Ultrathin Nafion Films Subjected to Thermal Annealing and Liquid Water Exposure Paul, Devproshad K.; Karan, Kunal The Journal of Physical Chemistry C, Vol. 118, Issue 4 https://doi.org/10.1021/jp410510x	journal	January 2014
Morphology of block polymers near a free surface Hasegawa, Hirokazu; Hashimoto, Takeji Macromolecules, Vol. 18, Issue 3 https://doi.org/10.1021/ma00145a051	journal	March 1985
Effect of Chain Architecture and Surface Energies on the Ordering Behavior of Lamellar and Cylinder Forming Block Copolymers Khanna, V.; Cochran, E. W.; Hexemer, A. Macromolecules, Vol. 39, Issue 26 https://doi.org/10.1021/ma0609228	journal	December 2006
Controlling Nafion Structure and Properties via Wetting Interactions Modestino, Miguel A.; Kusoglu, Ahmet; Hexemer, Alexander Macromolecules, Vol. 45, Issue 11, p. 4681-4688 https://doi.org/10.1021/ma300212f	journal	May 2012
Effect of Confinement on Structure, Water Solubility, and Water Transport in Nafion Thin Films Eastman, Scott A.; Kim, Sangcheol; Page, Kirt A. Macromolecules, Vol. 45, Issue 19, p. 7920-7930 https://doi.org/10.1021/ma301289v	journal	September 2012
Self-Assembly and Transport Limitations in Confined Nafion Films Modestino, Miguel A.; Paul, Devproshad K.; Dishari, Shudipto Macromolecules, Vol. 46, Issue 3, p. 867-873 https://doi.org/10.1021/ma301999a	journal	January 2013
Characteristics of Self-Assembled Ultrathin Nafion Films Paul, Devproshad K.; Karan, Kunal; Docoslis, Aristides Macromolecules, Vol. 46, Issue 9 https://doi.org/10.1021/ma4002319	journal	April 2013
Glass transition temperature of anionic polyisoprene Widmaier, J. M.; Meyer, G. C. Macromolecules, Vol. 14, Issue 2 https://doi.org/10.1021/ma50003a041	journal	March 1981
Phase Behavior of Symmetric Sulfonated Block Copolymers Park, Moon Jeong; Balsara, Nitash P. Macromolecules, Vol. 41, Issue 10 https://doi.org/10.1021/ma702733f	journal	May 2008
Multilamellar Interface Structures in Nafion Dura, Joseph A.; Murthi, Vivek S.; Hartman, Michael Macromolecules, Vol. 42, Issue 13 https://doi.org/10.1021/ma802823j	journal	July 2009
Polyelectrolyte Blends and Nontrivial Behavior in Effective Flory–Huggins Parameters Sing, Charles E.; Olvera de la Cruz, Monica ACS Macro Letters, Vol. 3, Issue 8 https://doi.org/10.1021/mz500202n	journal	July 2014
Three-dimensional analysis of Nafion layers in fuel cell electrodes Lopez-Haro, M.; Guétaz, L.; Printemps, T. Nature Communications, Vol. 5, Issue 1 https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms6229	journal	October 2014
Electrostatic control of block copolymer morphology Sing, Charles E.; Zwanikken, Jos W.; Olvera de la Cruz, Monica Nature Materials, Vol. 13, Issue 7 https://doi.org/10.1038/nmat4001	journal	June 2014
Alloying–realloying enabled high durability for Pt–Pd-3d-transition metal nanoparticle fuel cell catalysts Wu, Zhi-Peng; Caracciolo, Dominic T.; Maswadeh, Yazan Nature Communications, Vol. 12, Issue 1 https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-21017-6	journal	February 2021
Anion-exchange membranes in electrochemical energy systems Varcoe, John R.; Atanassov, Plamen; Dekel, Dario R. Energy & Environmental Science, Vol. 7, Issue 10, p. 3135-3191 https://doi.org/10.1039/C4EE01303D	journal	January 2014
Interplay between solid state transitions, conductivity mechanisms, and electrical relaxations in a [PVBTMA] [Br]-b-PMB diblock copolymer membrane for electrochemical applications Noto, Vito Di; Giffin, Guinevere A.; Vezzù, Keti Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics, Vol. 17, Issue 46 https://doi.org/10.1039/C5CP05545H	journal	January 2015
Pt-free silver nanoalloy electrocatalysts for oxygen reduction reaction in alkaline media Qaseem, Adnan; Chen, Fuyi; Wu, Xiaoqiang Catalysis Science & Technology, Vol. 6, Issue 10 https://doi.org/10.1039/C5CY02270C	journal	January 2016
High performance aliphatic-heterocyclic benzyl-quaternary ammonium radiation-grafted anion-exchange membranes Ponce-González, Julia; Whelligan, Daniel K.; Wang, Lianqin Energy & Environmental Science, Vol. 9, Issue 12 https://doi.org/10.1039/C6EE01958G	journal	January 2016
High performance anion exchange ionomer for anion exchange membrane fuel cells Gao, Xueqiang; Yu, Hongmei; Jia, Jia RSC Advances, Vol. 7, Issue 31 https://doi.org/10.1039/C7RA01980G	journal	January 2017
A comparative study of side-chain-type poly(ether ether ketone) anion exchange membrane functionalized with different hetero-cycloaliphatic quaternary ammonium groups Yao, Dan; Wei, Tonghui; Shang, Lichao RSC Advances, Vol. 9, Issue 14 https://doi.org/10.1039/C8RA09840A	journal	January 2019
Cationic amphiphilic alternating copolymers with tunable morphology Zhang, Jingling; Yu, Xiaoxi; Zheng, Bingqian Polymer Chemistry, Vol. 11, Issue 34 https://doi.org/10.1039/D0PY00782J	journal	January 2020
The critical importance of ionomers on the electrochemical activity of platinum and platinum-free catalysts for anion-exchange membrane fuel cells Santori, Pietro G.; Mondal, Abhishek N.; Dekel, Dario R. Sustainable Energy & Fuels, Vol. 4, Issue 7 https://doi.org/10.1039/D0SE00483A	journal	January 2020
Electrocatalysis of oxygen reduction and small alcohol oxidation in alkaline media Spendelow, Jacob S.; Wieckowski, Andrzej Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics, Vol. 9, Issue 21 https://doi.org/10.1039/b703315j	journal	January 2007
Surface Pourbaix diagrams and oxygen reduction activity of Pt, Ag and Ni(111) surfaces studied by DFT Hansen, Heine A.; Rossmeisl, Jan; Nørskov, Jens K. Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics, Vol. 10, Issue 25 https://doi.org/10.1039/b803956a	journal	January 2008
Global scattering functions: a tool for grazing incidence small angle X-ray scattering (GISAXS) data analysis of low correlated lateral structures Lenz, S.; Bonini, M.; Nett, S. K. The European Physical Journal Applied Physics, Vol. 51, Issue 1 https://doi.org/10.1051/epjap/2010064	journal	June 2010
The glass transition of thin film polymer/polymer blends: Interfacial interactions and confinement Pham, Joseph Q.; Green, Peter F. The Journal of Chemical Physics, Vol. 116, Issue 13 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1456035	journal	April 2002
Microphase separation in polyelectrolytic diblock copolymer melt: Weak segregation limit Kumar, Rajeev; Muthukumar, M. The Journal of Chemical Physics, Vol. 126, Issue 21 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.2737049	journal	June 2007
Initial and final state effects in the ESCA spectra of cadmium and silver oxides Gaarenstroom, S. W.; Winograd, N. The Journal of Chemical Physics, Vol. 67, Issue 8 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.435347	journal	October 1977
Theory of melt polyelectrolyte blends and block copolymers: Phase behavior, surface tension, and microphase periodicity Sing, Charles E.; Zwanikken, Jos W.; de la Cruz, Monica Olvera The Journal of Chemical Physics, Vol. 142, Issue 3 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4905830	journal	January 2015
X-ray and neutron scattering from rough surfaces Sinha, S. K.; Sirota, E. B.; Garoff, S. Physical Review B, Vol. 38, Issue 4 https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevB.38.2297	journal	August 1988
Small-angle x-ray scattering under grazing incidence: The cross section in the distorted-wave Born approximation Rauscher, M.; Salditt, T.; Spohn, H. Physical Review B, Vol. 52, Issue 23 https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevB.52.16855	journal	December 1995
Grazing-incidence small-angle X-ray scattering from thin polymer films with lamellar structures – the scattering cross section in the distorted-wave Born approximation Busch, P.; Rauscher, M.; Smilgies, D. -M. Journal of Applied Crystallography, Vol. 39, Issue 3 https://doi.org/10.1107/S0021889806012337	journal	May 2006
Irena : tool suite for modeling and analysis of small-angle scattering Ilavsky, Jan; Jemian, Peter R. Journal of Applied Crystallography, Vol. 42, Issue 2 https://doi.org/10.1107/S0021889809002222	journal	February 2009
Analysis of the Beaucage model Hammouda, Boualem Journal of Applied Crystallography, Vol. 43, Issue 6 https://doi.org/10.1107/S0021889810033856	journal	October 2010
Engineering bunched Pt-Ni alloy nanocages for efficient oxygen reduction in practical fuel cells Tian, Xinlong; Zhao, Xiao; Su, Ya-Qiong Science, Vol. 366, Issue 6467 https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aaw7493	journal	November 2019
Proton Transport Property in Supported Nafion Nanothin Films by Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy Paul, Devproshad K.; McCreery, Richard; Karan, Kunal Journal of The Electrochemical Society, Vol. 161, Issue 14 https://doi.org/10.1149/2.0571414jes	journal	January 2014
Polystyrene-Based Hydroxide-Ion-Conducting Ionomer: Binder Characteristics and Performance in Anion-Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells Chae, Ji Eon; Lee, So Young; Yoo, Sung Jong Polymers, Vol. 13, Issue 5 https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13050690	journal	February 2021