Molecular Design of a Highly Stable Single-Ion Conducting Polymer Gel Electrolyte

Liu, Kewei; Jiang, Sisi; Dzwiniel, Trevor L.; Kim, Hong-Keun; Yu, Zhou; Dietz Rago, Nancy L.; Kim, Jae Jin; Fister, Timothy T.; Yang, Jianzhong; Liu, Qian; Gilbert, James; Cheng, Lei; Srinivasan, Venkat; Zhang, Zhengcheng; Liao, Chen

doi:10.1021/acsami.0c03363

Title: Molecular Design of a Highly Stable Single-Ion Conducting Polymer Gel Electrolyte

Abstract

Single-ion conducting (SIC) polymer electrolytes with a high Li transference number (t_Li⁺) have shown the capability to enable enhanced battery performance and safety by avoiding liquid–electrolyte leakage and suppressing Li dendrite formation. However, issues of insufficient ionic conductivity, low electrochemical stability, and poor polymer/electrode interfacial contact have greatly hindered their commercial use. In this work, a Li-containing boron-centered fluorinated SIC polymer gel electrolyte (LiBFSIE) was rationally designed to achieve a high t_Li⁺ and high electrochemical stability. Owing to the low dissociation energy of the boron-centered anion and Li⁺, the as-prepared LiBFSIE exhibited an ionic conductivity of 2 × 10^–4 S/cm at 35 °C, which is exclusively contributed by Li ions owing to a high t_Li⁺ of 0.93. Both simulation and experimental approaches were applied to investigate the ion diffusion and concentration gradient in the LiBFSIE and non-cross-linked dual-ion systems. Typical rectangular Li stripping/plating voltage profiles demonstrated the uniform Li deposition assisted by LiBFSIE. The interfacial contact and electrolyte infiltration were further optimized with an in situ UV–vis-initiated polymerization method together with the electrode materials. By virtue of the high electrochemical stability of LiBFSIE, the cells achieved a promising average Coulombic efficiency of 99.95% over 200 cycles, which is higher thanmore »« less

Authors:

Liu, Kewei ^[1]; Jiang, Sisi ^[1]; Dzwiniel, Trevor L. ^[1]; Kim, Hong-Keun ^[1];

^[1]; Dietz Rago, Nancy L. ^[1];

^[1];

^[1]; Yang, Jianzhong ^[1]; Liu, Qian ^[1]; Gilbert, James ^[1];

^[1]; Srinivasan, Venkat ^[2];

^[1];

^[3]

Argonne National Lab. (ANL), Lemont, IL (United States)
Joint Center for Energy Storage Research, Lemont, IL (United States); Argonne Collaborative Center for Energy Storage Science, Lemont, IL (United States)
Argonne National Lab. (ANL), Lemont, IL (United States); Joint Center for Energy Storage Research, Lemont, IL (United States)

Publication Date:: Fri May 15 00:00:00 EDT 2020

Research Org.:: Argonne National Laboratory (ANL), Argonne, IL (United States). Advanced Photon Source (APS) and Cell Analysis, Modeling and Prototyping (CAMP) Facility

Sponsoring Org.:: USDOE Office of Science (SC); USDOE Laboratory Directed Research and Development (LDRD) Program; USDOE Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE), Transportation Office. Vehicle Technologies Office

OSTI Identifier:: 1660413

Grant/Contract Number:: AC02-06CH11357

Resource Type:: Accepted Manuscript

Journal Name:: ACS Applied Materials and Interfaces

Additional Journal Information:: Journal Volume: 12; Journal Issue: 26; Journal ID: ISSN 1944-8244

Publisher:: American Chemical Society (ACS)

Country of Publication:: United States

Language:: English

Subject:: 36 MATERIALS SCIENCE; single ion electrolyte; polymer; lithium ion batteries; high transference number; in situ syntheses

Citation Formats


                    Liu, Kewei, Jiang, Sisi, Dzwiniel, Trevor L., Kim, Hong-Keun, Yu, Zhou, Dietz Rago, Nancy L., Kim, Jae Jin, Fister, Timothy T., Yang, Jianzhong, Liu, Qian, Gilbert, James, Cheng, Lei, Srinivasan, Venkat, Zhang, Zhengcheng, and Liao, Chen. Molecular Design of a Highly Stable Single-Ion Conducting Polymer Gel Electrolyte.  United States: N. p., 2020. 
Web.  doi:10.1021/acsami.0c03363.

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                    Liu, Kewei, Jiang, Sisi, Dzwiniel, Trevor L., Kim, Hong-Keun, Yu, Zhou, Dietz Rago, Nancy L., Kim, Jae Jin, Fister, Timothy T., Yang, Jianzhong, Liu, Qian, Gilbert, James, Cheng, Lei, Srinivasan, Venkat, Zhang, Zhengcheng, & Liao, Chen. Molecular Design of a Highly Stable Single-Ion Conducting Polymer Gel Electrolyte.  United States.  https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.0c03363

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                    Liu, Kewei, Jiang, Sisi, Dzwiniel, Trevor L., Kim, Hong-Keun, Yu, Zhou, Dietz Rago, Nancy L., Kim, Jae Jin, Fister, Timothy T., Yang, Jianzhong, Liu, Qian, Gilbert, James, Cheng, Lei, Srinivasan, Venkat, Zhang, Zhengcheng, and Liao, Chen. Fri .  
"Molecular Design of a Highly Stable Single-Ion Conducting Polymer Gel Electrolyte".  United States.  https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.0c03363.  https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/1660413.

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@article{osti_1660413,

  title        = {Molecular Design of a Highly Stable Single-Ion Conducting Polymer Gel Electrolyte},

  author       = {Liu, Kewei and Jiang, Sisi and Dzwiniel, Trevor L. and Kim, Hong-Keun and Yu, Zhou and Dietz Rago, Nancy L. and Kim, Jae Jin and Fister, Timothy T. and Yang, Jianzhong and Liu, Qian and Gilbert, James and Cheng, Lei and Srinivasan, Venkat and Zhang, Zhengcheng and Liao, Chen},

  abstractNote = {Single-ion conducting (SIC) polymer electrolytes with a high Li transference number (tLi+) have shown the capability to enable enhanced battery performance and safety by avoiding liquid–electrolyte leakage and suppressing Li dendrite formation. However, issues of insufficient ionic conductivity, low electrochemical stability, and poor polymer/electrode interfacial contact have greatly hindered their commercial use. In this work, a Li-containing boron-centered fluorinated SIC polymer gel electrolyte (LiBFSIE) was rationally designed to achieve a high tLi+ and high electrochemical stability. Owing to the low dissociation energy of the boron-centered anion and Li+, the as-prepared LiBFSIE exhibited an ionic conductivity of 2 × 10–4 S/cm at 35 °C, which is exclusively contributed by Li ions owing to a high tLi+ of 0.93. Both simulation and experimental approaches were applied to investigate the ion diffusion and concentration gradient in the LiBFSIE and non-cross-linked dual-ion systems. Typical rectangular Li stripping/plating voltage profiles demonstrated the uniform Li deposition assisted by LiBFSIE. The interfacial contact and electrolyte infiltration were further optimized with an in situ UV–vis-initiated polymerization method together with the electrode materials. By virtue of the high electrochemical stability of LiBFSIE, the cells achieved a promising average Coulombic efficiency of 99.95% over 200 cycles, which is higher than that of liquid–electrolyte-based cells. No obvious capacity fading was observed, indicating the long-term stability of LiBFSIE for lithium metal batteries.},

  doi          = {10.1021/acsami.0c03363},

  journal      = {ACS Applied Materials and Interfaces},

  number       = 26,

  volume       = 12,

  place        = {United States},

  year         = {Fri May 15 00:00:00 EDT 2020},

  month        = {Fri May 15 00:00:00 EDT 2020}

}

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Highly Loaded Sulfur Cathode, Coated Separator and Gel Electrolyte for High Rate Li-Sulfur Batteries

Technical Report Joo, Yong Lak ; Suntivich, Jin ; Nguyen, Trung

As one of DOE Battery 500 Seedling projects, Cornell University and EIC Labs investigated and developed i) highly loaded sulfur cathodes (> 3 mg/cm²), ii) hybrid separators, and iii) gel ceramic electrolytes (GCE) to mitigate the low rate capability, shuttling effect and limited cycle life in high performance Li-Sulfur batteries. Scalable nanomanufacturing processes such as air-controlled electrospray (ACES) and gas-assisted electrospinning (GAES) have been utilized to develop directly deposited electrodes and polymer/ceramic hybrid separators. First, in the development of highly loaded cathodes, alternating layers of sulfur impregnated mesoporous carbon and graphene were fabricated via ACES and the resulting layered cathodesmore »« less
https://doi.org/10.2172/1874053

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A Single‐Ion Conducting Borate Network Polymer as a Viable Quasi‐Solid Electrolyte for Lithium Metal Batteries

Journal Article Shin, Dong‐Myeong ; Bachman, Jonathan E. ; Taylor, Mercedes K. ; ... - Advanced Materials

Abstract Lithium‐ion batteries have remained a state‐of‐the‐art electrochemical energy storage technology for decades now, but their energy densities are limited by electrode materials and conventional liquid electrolytes can pose significant safety concerns. Lithium metal batteries featuring Li metal anodes, solid polymer electrolytes, and high‐voltage cathodes represent promising candidates for next‐generation devices exhibiting improved power and safety, but such solid polymer electrolytes generally do not exhibit the required excellent electrochemical properties and thermal stability in tandem. Here, an interpenetrating network polymer with weakly coordinating anion nodes that functions as a high‐performing single‐ion conducting electrolyte in the presence of minimal plasticizer, withmore »« less
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https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201905771

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Title: Molecular Design of a Highly Stable Single-Ion Conducting Polymer Gel Electrolyte

Abstract

Citation Formats

Ultimate Limits to Intercalation Reactions for Lithium Batteries journal, October 2014

Reviving the lithium metal anode for high-energy batteries journal, March 2017

Toward Safe Lithium Metal Anode in Rechargeable Batteries: A Review journal, July 2017

Advancing Lithium Metal Batteries journal, May 2018

Structural underpinnings of cathode protection by in situ generated lithium oxyfluorophosphates journal, October 2019

Stable cycling of high-voltage lithium metal batteries in ether electrolytes journal, July 2018

Sputtering of lithium compounds for preparation of electrolyte thin films journal, July 1992

Electrical properties of amorphous lithium electrolyte thin films journal, July 1992

High ionic conductivity in lithium lanthanum titanate journal, June 1993

Dense nanostructured solid electrolyte with high Li-ion conductivity by spark plasma sintering technique journal, August 2008

Preparation of lithium ion conducting solid electrolyte of NASICON-type Li1+xAlxTi2−x(PO4)3 (x = 0.3) obtained by using the mechanochemical method and its application as surface modification materials of LiCoO2 cathode for lithium cell journal, October 2013

New lithium ion conductors based on Li2S-SiS2 system journal, July 1992

Mechanochemical Synthesis of New Amorphous Materials of 60Li2S·40SiS2 with High Lithium Ion Conductivity journal, May 1999

Crystal Chemistry and Stability of “Li7La3Zr2O12 ” Garnet: A Fast Lithium-Ion Conductor journal, February 2011

Effect of substitution (Ta, Al, Ga) on the conductivity of Li7La3Zr2O12 journal, May 2012

Polymer Electrolytes for Lithium-Based Batteries: Advances and Prospects journal, September 2019

Complexes of alkali metal ions with poly(ethylene oxide) journal, November 1973

Physical properties of solid polymer electrolyte PEO(LiTFSI) complexes journal, August 1995

Kinetics and stability of the lithium electrode in poly(methylmethacrylate)-based gel electrolytes journal, June 1995

Dielectric and electrical characterization of (PEO–PMMA)–LiBF4–EC plasticized solid polymer electrolyte films journal, August 2017

Performance of “Polymer-in-Salt” Electrolyte PAN-LiTFSI Enhanced by Graphene Oxide Filler journal, January 2016

PAN–PEO solid polymer electrolytes with high ionic conductivity journal, February 2005

Studies of some poly(vinylidene fluoride) electrolytes journal, January 1997

A Flexible Dual-Ion Battery Based on PVDF-HFP-Modified Gel Polymer Electrolyte with Excellent Cycling Performance and Superior Rate Capability journal, July 2018

Synthesis and Characterization of Network Single Ion Conductors Based on Comb-Branched Polyepoxide Ethers and Lithium Bis(allylmalonato)borate journal, January 2006

The Impact of Elastic Deformation on Deposition Kinetics at Lithium/Polymer Interfaces journal, January 2005

Single lithium-ion conducting solid polymer electrolytes: advances and perspectives journal, January 2017

Impact of External Pressure and Electrolyte Transport Properties on Lithium Dendrite Growth journal, January 2018

Poly(arylene ether)-Based Single-Ion Conductors for Lithium-Ion Batteries journal, December 2015

Single-Ion Conducting Polymer Electrolytes for Lithium Metal Polymer Batteries that Operate at Ambient Temperature journal, September 2016

Highly Conductive Polymer Electrolytes Containing Rigid Polymers journal, September 1998

Synthesis and Characterization of Network Type Single Ion Conductors journal, March 2004

Synthesis and Application of a Conjugated Polydianion‐Based Single‐Ion Conducting Polymer for High‐Performance Solid Lithium‐Ion Batteries journal, April 2019

A Novel Single-Ion-Conducting Polymer Electrolyte Derived from CO 2 -Based Multifunctional Polycarbonate journal, November 2016

Synthesis and Characterization of Single-Ion Graft Copolymer Electrolytes journal, January 2005

Single-ion diblock copolymers for solid-state polymer electrolytes journal, June 2015

Ionic aggregate dissolution and conduction in a plasticized single-ion polymer conductor journal, February 2015

Study of lithium conducting single ion conductor based on polystyrene sulfonate for lithium battery application journal, September 2016

Single lithium-ion conducting poly(tetrafluorostyrene sulfonate) – polyether block copolymer electrolytes journal, January 2017

Single-ion BAB triblock copolymers as highly efficient electrolytes for lithium-metal batteries journal, March 2013

Mechanism of Anodic Dissolution of the Aluminum Current Collector in 1 M LiTFSI EC:DEC 3:7 in Rechargeable Lithium Batteries journal, December 2012

Synthesis, Characterization and Battery Performance of A Lithium Poly (4-vinylphenol) Phenolate Borate Composite Membrane journal, September 2014

Single-ion dominantly conducting polyborates towards high performance electrolytes in lithium batteries journal, January 2015

Toward ambient temperature operation with all-solid-state lithium metal batteries with a sp boron-based solid single ion conducting polymer electrolyte journal, February 2016

Electrochemical Characterization of Single Lithium-Ion Conducting Polymer Electrolytes Based on sp 3 Boron and Poly(ethylene glycol) Bridges journal, August 2018

Highly porous single-ion conductive composite polymer electrolyte for high performance Li-ion batteries journal, September 2018

High Ion Conducting Nanohybrid Solid Polymer Electrolytes via Single-Ion Conducting Mesoporous Organosilica in Poly(ethylene oxide) journal, May 2017

The Thiol-Michael Addition Click Reaction: A Powerful and Widely Used Tool in Materials Chemistry journal, September 2013

A hybrid gel–solid-state polymer electrolyte for long-life lithium oxygen batteries journal, January 2015

Oxidative Stability and Initial Decomposition Reactions of Carbonate, Sulfone, and Alkyl Phosphate-Based Electrolytes journal, April 2013

Mechanistic Study of Electrolyte Additives to Stabilize High-Voltage Cathode–Electrolyte Interface in Lithium-Ion Batteries journal, December 2017

Conductivity and transference number measurements on polymer electrolytes journal, September 1988

A Novel Method for the In Situ Determination of Concentration Gradients in the Electrolyte of Li-Ion Batteries journal, September 2006

Electron Spin Resonance Study of the Electrochemical Reduction of Electrolyte Solutions for Lithium Secondary Batteries journal, November 1998

Factors Which Limit the Cycle Life of Rechargeable Lithium (Metal) Batteries journal, January 2000

Implantable Solid Electrolyte Interphase in Lithium-Metal Batteries journal, February 2017

Electrode–Electrolyte Interface in Li-Ion Batteries: Current Understanding and New Insights journal, October 2015

Synergistic Performance of Lithium Difluoro(oxalato)borate and Fluoroethylene Carbonate in Carbonate Electrolytes for Lithium Metal Anodes journal, December 2018

Positive Electrode Passivation by LiDFOB Electrolyte Additive in High-Capacity Lithium-Ion Cells journal, January 2012

Synthesis and Characterization of Lithium Bis(fluoromalonato)borate for Lithium-Ion Battery Applications journal, November 2013

Effect of electrolyte on the nanostructure of the solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) and performance of lithium metal anodes journal, January 2018

Long cycle life and dendrite-free lithium morphology in anode-free lithium pouch cells enabled by a dual-salt liquid electrolyte journal, July 2019

VMD: Visual molecular dynamics journal, February 1996

THE weighted histogram analysis method for free-energy calculations on biomolecules. I. The method journal, October 1992

GROMACS 4: Algorithms for Highly Efficient, Load-Balanced, and Scalable Molecular Simulation journal, February 2008

Development and Testing of the OPLS All-Atom Force Field on Conformational Energetics and Properties of Organic Liquids journal, January 1996

Ultimate Limits to Intercalation Reactions for Lithium Batteries
journal, October 2014

Reviving the lithium metal anode for high-energy batteries
journal, March 2017

Toward Safe Lithium Metal Anode in Rechargeable Batteries: A Review
journal, July 2017

Advancing Lithium Metal Batteries
journal, May 2018

Structural underpinnings of cathode protection by in situ generated lithium oxyfluorophosphates
journal, October 2019

Stable cycling of high-voltage lithium metal batteries in ether electrolytes
journal, July 2018

Sputtering of lithium compounds for preparation of electrolyte thin films
journal, July 1992

Electrical properties of amorphous lithium electrolyte thin films
journal, July 1992

High ionic conductivity in lithium lanthanum titanate
journal, June 1993

Dense nanostructured solid electrolyte with high Li-ion conductivity by spark plasma sintering technique
journal, August 2008

Preparation of lithium ion conducting solid electrolyte of NASICON-type Li1+xAlxTi2−x(PO4)3 (x = 0.3) obtained by using the mechanochemical method and its application as surface modification materials of LiCoO2 cathode for lithium cell
journal, October 2013

New lithium ion conductors based on Li2S-SiS2 system
journal, July 1992

Mechanochemical Synthesis of New Amorphous Materials of 60Li2S·40SiS2 with High Lithium Ion Conductivity
journal, May 1999

Crystal Chemistry and Stability of “Li₇La₃Zr₂O₁₂ ” Garnet: A Fast Lithium-Ion Conductor
journal, February 2011

Effect of substitution (Ta, Al, Ga) on the conductivity of Li₇La₃Zr₂O₁₂
journal, May 2012

Polymer Electrolytes for Lithium-Based Batteries: Advances and Prospects
journal, September 2019

Complexes of alkali metal ions with poly(ethylene oxide)
journal, November 1973

Physical properties of solid polymer electrolyte PEO(LiTFSI) complexes
journal, August 1995

Kinetics and stability of the lithium electrode in poly(methylmethacrylate)-based gel electrolytes
journal, June 1995

Dielectric and electrical characterization of (PEO–PMMA)–LiBF4–EC plasticized solid polymer electrolyte films
journal, August 2017

Performance of “Polymer-in-Salt” Electrolyte PAN-LiTFSI Enhanced by Graphene Oxide Filler
journal, January 2016

PAN–PEO solid polymer electrolytes with high ionic conductivity
journal, February 2005

Studies of some poly(vinylidene fluoride) electrolytes
journal, January 1997

A Flexible Dual-Ion Battery Based on PVDF-HFP-Modified Gel Polymer Electrolyte with Excellent Cycling Performance and Superior Rate Capability
journal, July 2018

Synthesis and Characterization of Network Single Ion Conductors Based on Comb-Branched Polyepoxide Ethers and Lithium Bis(allylmalonato)borate
journal, January 2006

The Impact of Elastic Deformation on Deposition Kinetics at Lithium/Polymer Interfaces
journal, January 2005

Single lithium-ion conducting solid polymer electrolytes: advances and perspectives
journal, January 2017

Impact of External Pressure and Electrolyte Transport Properties on Lithium Dendrite Growth
journal, January 2018

Poly(arylene ether)-Based Single-Ion Conductors for Lithium-Ion Batteries
journal, December 2015

Single-Ion Conducting Polymer Electrolytes for Lithium Metal Polymer Batteries that Operate at Ambient Temperature
journal, September 2016

Highly Conductive Polymer Electrolytes Containing Rigid Polymers
journal, September 1998

Synthesis and Characterization of Network Type Single Ion Conductors
journal, March 2004

Synthesis and Application of a Conjugated Polydianion‐Based Single‐Ion Conducting Polymer for High‐Performance Solid Lithium‐Ion Batteries
journal, April 2019

A Novel Single-Ion-Conducting Polymer Electrolyte Derived from CO ₂ -Based Multifunctional Polycarbonate
journal, November 2016

Synthesis and Characterization of Single-Ion Graft Copolymer Electrolytes
journal, January 2005

Single-ion diblock copolymers for solid-state polymer electrolytes
journal, June 2015

Ionic aggregate dissolution and conduction in a plasticized single-ion polymer conductor
journal, February 2015

Study of lithium conducting single ion conductor based on polystyrene sulfonate for lithium battery application
journal, September 2016

Single lithium-ion conducting poly(tetrafluorostyrene sulfonate) – polyether block copolymer electrolytes
journal, January 2017

Single-ion BAB triblock copolymers as highly efficient electrolytes for lithium-metal batteries
journal, March 2013

Mechanism of Anodic Dissolution of the Aluminum Current Collector in 1 M LiTFSI EC:DEC 3:7 in Rechargeable Lithium Batteries
journal, December 2012

Synthesis, Characterization and Battery Performance of A Lithium Poly (4-vinylphenol) Phenolate Borate Composite Membrane
journal, September 2014

Single-ion dominantly conducting polyborates towards high performance electrolytes in lithium batteries
journal, January 2015

Toward ambient temperature operation with all-solid-state lithium metal batteries with a sp boron-based solid single ion conducting polymer electrolyte
journal, February 2016

Electrochemical Characterization of Single Lithium-Ion Conducting Polymer Electrolytes Based on sp ³ Boron and Poly(ethylene glycol) Bridges
journal, August 2018

Highly porous single-ion conductive composite polymer electrolyte for high performance Li-ion batteries
journal, September 2018

High Ion Conducting Nanohybrid Solid Polymer Electrolytes via Single-Ion Conducting Mesoporous Organosilica in Poly(ethylene oxide)
journal, May 2017

The Thiol-Michael Addition Click Reaction: A Powerful and Widely Used Tool in Materials Chemistry
journal, September 2013

A hybrid gel–solid-state polymer electrolyte for long-life lithium oxygen batteries
journal, January 2015

Oxidative Stability and Initial Decomposition Reactions of Carbonate, Sulfone, and Alkyl Phosphate-Based Electrolytes
journal, April 2013

Mechanistic Study of Electrolyte Additives to Stabilize High-Voltage Cathode–Electrolyte Interface in Lithium-Ion Batteries
journal, December 2017

Conductivity and transference number measurements on polymer electrolytes
journal, September 1988

A Novel Method for the In Situ Determination of Concentration Gradients in the Electrolyte of Li-Ion Batteries
journal, September 2006

Electron Spin Resonance Study of the Electrochemical Reduction of Electrolyte Solutions for Lithium Secondary Batteries
journal, November 1998

Factors Which Limit the Cycle Life of Rechargeable Lithium (Metal) Batteries
journal, January 2000

Implantable Solid Electrolyte Interphase in Lithium-Metal Batteries
journal, February 2017

Electrode–Electrolyte Interface in Li-Ion Batteries: Current Understanding and New Insights
journal, October 2015

Synergistic Performance of Lithium Difluoro(oxalato)borate and Fluoroethylene Carbonate in Carbonate Electrolytes for Lithium Metal Anodes
journal, December 2018

Positive Electrode Passivation by LiDFOB Electrolyte Additive in High-Capacity Lithium-Ion Cells
journal, January 2012

Synthesis and Characterization of Lithium Bis(fluoromalonato)borate for Lithium-Ion Battery Applications
journal, November 2013

Effect of electrolyte on the nanostructure of the solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) and performance of lithium metal anodes
journal, January 2018

Long cycle life and dendrite-free lithium morphology in anode-free lithium pouch cells enabled by a dual-salt liquid electrolyte
journal, July 2019

VMD: Visual molecular dynamics
journal, February 1996

THE weighted histogram analysis method for free-energy calculations on biomolecules. I. The method
journal, October 1992

GROMACS 4: Algorithms for Highly Efficient, Load-Balanced, and Scalable Molecular Simulation
journal, February 2008

Development and Testing of the OPLS All-Atom Force Field on Conformational Energetics and Properties of Organic Liquids
journal, January 1996