Asymmetric hot-carrier thermalization and broadband photoresponse in graphene-2D semiconductor lateral heterojunctions

Lin, Yuxuan; Ma, Qiong; Shen, Pin-Chun; Ilyas, Batyr; Bie, Yaqing; Liao, Albert; Ergeçen, Emre; Han, Bingnan; Mao, Nannan; Zhang, Xu; Ji, Xiang; Zhang, Yuhao; Yin, Jihao; Huang, Shengxi; Dresselhaus, Mildred; Gedik, Nuh; Jarillo-Herrero, Pablo; Ling, Xi; Kong, Jing; Palacios, Tomás

doi:10.1126/sciadv.aav1493

Title: Asymmetric hot-carrier thermalization and broadband photoresponse in graphene-2D semiconductor lateral heterojunctions

Abstract

The massless Dirac electron transport in graphene has led to a variety of unique light-matter interaction phenomena, which promise many novel optoelectronic applications. Most of the effects are only accessible by breaking the spatial symmetry, through introducing edges, p-n junctions, or heterogeneous interfaces. The recent development of direct synthesis of lateral heterostructures offers new opportunities to achieve the desired asymmetry. As a proof of concept, we study the photothermoelectric effect in an asymmetric lateral heterojunction between the Dirac semimetallic monolayer graphene and the parabolic semiconducting monolayer MoS₂. Very different hot-carrier cooling mechanisms on the graphene and the MoS₂sides allow us to resolve the asymmetric thermalization pathways of photoinduced hot carriers spatially with electrostatic gate tunability. We also demonstrate the potential of graphene-2D semiconductor lateral heterojunctions as broadband infrared photodetectors. The proposed structure shows an extreme in-plane asymmetry and provides a new platform to study light-matter interactions in low-dimensional systems.

Authors:

^[1]; Ma, Qiong ^[1];

^[1];

^[1]; Bie, Yaqing ^[1]; Liao, Albert ^[1]; Ergeçen, Emre ^[1];

^[2]; Mao, Nannan ^[1]; Zhang, Xu ^[1]; Ji, Xiang ^[1];

^[1];

^[3];

^[4]; Dresselhaus, Mildred ^[1];

^[1];

^[1]; Ling, Xi ^[5];

^[1];

^[1]

Massachusetts Inst. of Technology (MIT), Cambridge, MA (United States)
Massachusetts Inst. of Technology (MIT), Cambridge, MA (United States); Beihang Univ., Beijing (China)
Beihang Univ., Beijing (China)
Pennsylvania State Univ., University Park, PA (United States)
Boston Univ., MA (United States)

Publication Date:: 2019-06-14

Research Org.:: Massachusetts Inst. of Technology (MIT), Cambridge, MA (United States); Univ. of Washington, Seattle, WA (United States)

Sponsoring Org.:: USDOE Office of Science (SC), Basic Energy Sciences (BES)

OSTI Identifier:: 1610524

Grant/Contract Number:: SC0001088; SC0012509

Resource Type:: Accepted Manuscript

Journal Name:: Science Advances

Additional Journal Information:: Journal Volume: 5; Journal Issue: 6; Journal ID: ISSN 2375-2548

Publisher:: AAAS

Country of Publication:: United States

Language:: English

Subject:: 71 CLASSICAL AND QUANTUM MECHANICS, GENERAL PHYSICS; Science & Technology - Other Topics

Citation Formats


                    Lin, Yuxuan, Ma, Qiong, Shen, Pin-Chun, Ilyas, Batyr, Bie, Yaqing, Liao, Albert, Ergeçen, Emre, Han, Bingnan, Mao, Nannan, Zhang, Xu, Ji, Xiang, Zhang, Yuhao, Yin, Jihao, Huang, Shengxi, Dresselhaus, Mildred, Gedik, Nuh, Jarillo-Herrero, Pablo, Ling, Xi, Kong, Jing, and Palacios, Tomás. Asymmetric hot-carrier thermalization and broadband photoresponse in graphene-2D semiconductor lateral heterojunctions.  United States: N. p., 2019. 
Web.  doi:10.1126/sciadv.aav1493.

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                    Lin, Yuxuan, Ma, Qiong, Shen, Pin-Chun, Ilyas, Batyr, Bie, Yaqing, Liao, Albert, Ergeçen, Emre, Han, Bingnan, Mao, Nannan, Zhang, Xu, Ji, Xiang, Zhang, Yuhao, Yin, Jihao, Huang, Shengxi, Dresselhaus, Mildred, Gedik, Nuh, Jarillo-Herrero, Pablo, Ling, Xi, Kong, Jing, & Palacios, Tomás. Asymmetric hot-carrier thermalization and broadband photoresponse in graphene-2D semiconductor lateral heterojunctions.  United States.  https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aav1493

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                    Lin, Yuxuan, Ma, Qiong, Shen, Pin-Chun, Ilyas, Batyr, Bie, Yaqing, Liao, Albert, Ergeçen, Emre, Han, Bingnan, Mao, Nannan, Zhang, Xu, Ji, Xiang, Zhang, Yuhao, Yin, Jihao, Huang, Shengxi, Dresselhaus, Mildred, Gedik, Nuh, Jarillo-Herrero, Pablo, Ling, Xi, Kong, Jing, and Palacios, Tomás. Fri .  
"Asymmetric hot-carrier thermalization and broadband photoresponse in graphene-2D semiconductor lateral heterojunctions".  United States.  https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aav1493.  https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/1610524.

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@article{osti_1610524,

  title        = {Asymmetric hot-carrier thermalization and broadband photoresponse in graphene-2D semiconductor lateral heterojunctions},

  author       = {Lin, Yuxuan and Ma, Qiong and Shen, Pin-Chun and Ilyas, Batyr and Bie, Yaqing and Liao, Albert and Ergeçen, Emre and Han, Bingnan and Mao, Nannan and Zhang, Xu and Ji, Xiang and Zhang, Yuhao and Yin, Jihao and Huang, Shengxi and Dresselhaus, Mildred and Gedik, Nuh and Jarillo-Herrero, Pablo and Ling, Xi and Kong, Jing and Palacios, Tomás},

  abstractNote = {The massless Dirac electron transport in graphene has led to a variety of unique light-matter interaction phenomena, which promise many novel optoelectronic applications. Most of the effects are only accessible by breaking the spatial symmetry, through introducing edges, p-n junctions, or heterogeneous interfaces. The recent development of direct synthesis of lateral heterostructures offers new opportunities to achieve the desired asymmetry. As a proof of concept, we study the photothermoelectric effect in an asymmetric lateral heterojunction between the Dirac semimetallic monolayer graphene and the parabolic semiconducting monolayer MoS2. Very different hot-carrier cooling mechanisms on the graphene and the MoS2sides allow us to resolve the asymmetric thermalization pathways of photoinduced hot carriers spatially with electrostatic gate tunability. We also demonstrate the potential of graphene-2D semiconductor lateral heterojunctions as broadband infrared photodetectors. The proposed structure shows an extreme in-plane asymmetry and provides a new platform to study light-matter interactions in low-dimensional systems.},

  doi          = {10.1126/sciadv.aav1493},

  journal      = {Science Advances},

  number       = 6,

  volume       = 5,

  place        = {United States},

  year         = {2019},

  month        = {6}

}

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Recently the applications of two-dimensional (2D) materials have been broadened by engineering their mechanical, electronic, and optical properties through either lateral or vertical hybridization. Along with this line, we report the successful design and fabrication of a novel triphasic 2D material by vertically stacking lateral 2H-/1T'-molybdenum disulfide (MoS₂) heterostructures on graphene with the assistance of supercritical carbon dioxide. This triphasic structure is experimentally shown to significantly enhance the photocurrent densities for hydrogen evolution reactions. First-principles theoretical analyses reveal that the improved photoresponse should be ascribed to the beneficial band alignments of the triphasic heterostructure. More specifically, electrons can efficiently hopmore »« less
Cited by 27
https://doi.org/10.1002/aelm.201700024

Full Text Available
A dielectric-defined lateral heterojunction in a monolayer semiconductor

Journal Article Utama, M. Iqbal Bakti ; Kleemann, Hans ; Zhao, Wenyu ; ... - Nature Electronics

Owing to their low dimensionality, two-dimensional semiconductors, such as monolayer molybdenum disulfide, have a range of properties that make them valuable in the development of nanoelectronics. For example, the electronic bandgap of these semiconductors is not an intrinsic physical parameter and can be engineered by manipulating the dielectric environment around the monolayer. Here in this paper we show that this dielectric-dependent electronic bandgap can be used to engineer a lateral heterojunction within a homogeneous MoS₂ monolayer. We visualize the heterostructure with Kelvin probe force microscopy and examine its influence on electrical transport experimentally and theoretically. We observe a lateral heterojunctionmore »« less
Cited by 78
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41928-019-0207-4

Full Text Available
Photocarrier Transfer across Monolayer MoS₂ –MoSe₂ Lateral Heterojunctions

Journal Article Bellus, Matthew Z. ; Mahjouri-Samani, Masoud ; Lane, Samuel D. ; ... - ACS Nano

In-plane heterojuctions formed from two monolayer semiconductors represent the finest control of electrons in condensed matter and have attracted significant interest. Various device studies have shown the effectiveness of such structures to control electronic processes, illustrating their potentials for electronic and optoelectronic applications. However, information about the physical mechanisms of charge carrier transfer across the junctions is still rare, mainly due to the lack of adequate experimental techniques. Here we show that transient absorption measurements with high spatial and temporal resolution can be used to directly monitor such transfer processes. We studied MoS₂–MoSe₂ in-plane heterostructures fabricated by chemical vapor depositionmore »« less
Cited by 20
https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.8b02843

Full Text Available
Giant intrinsic photoresponse in pristine graphene

Journal Article Ma, Qiong ; Lui, Chun Hung ; Song, Justin C. W. ; ... - Nature Nanotechnology

When the Fermi level is aligned with the Dirac point of gra-phene, reduced charge screening greatly enhances electron–electron scattering1–5. In an optically excited system, the kinematics of electron–electron scattering in Dirac fermions is predicted to give rise to novel optoelectronic phenomena6–11. In this paper, we report on the observation of an intrinsic pho-tocurrent in graphene, which occurs in a different parameter regime from all the previously observed photothermoelectric or photovoltaic photocurrents in graphene12–20: the photo-current emerges exclusively at the charge neutrality point, requiring no finite doping. Unlike other photocurrent types that are enhanced near p–n or contact junctions, the photo-currentmore »« less
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41565-018-0323-8

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Title: Asymmetric hot-carrier thermalization and broadband photoresponse in graphene-2D semiconductor lateral heterojunctions

Abstract

Citation Formats

Graphene and boron nitride lateral heterostructures for atomically thin circuitry journal, August 2012

Electrical and thermal transport in metallic single-wall carbon nanotubes on insulating substrates journal, May 2007

Thermal Conductivity of Monolayer Molybdenum Disulfide Obtained from Temperature-Dependent Raman Spectroscopy journal, December 2013

Ultrafast hot-carrier-dominated photocurrent in graphene journal, January 2012

Electronic Cooling in Graphene journal, May 2009

Electronic and plasmonic phenomena at graphene grain boundaries journal, October 2013

Photo-thermionic effect in vertical graphene heterostructures journal, July 2016

Hot-electron cooling by acoustic and optical phonons in monolayers of MoS 2 and other transition-metal dichalcogenides journal, October 2014

Scanning tunnelling microscopy and spectroscopy of ultra-flat graphene on hexagonal boron nitride journal, February 2011

Epitaxial growth of a monolayer WSe2-MoS2 lateral p-n junction with an atomically sharp interface journal, July 2015

Atomically Thin Ohmic Edge Contacts Between Two-Dimensional Materials journal, May 2016

Hot Carrier-Assisted Intrinsic Photoresponse in Graphene journal, October 2011

Directional interlayer spin-valley transfer in two-dimensional heterostructures journal, December 2016

Competing Channels for Hot-Electron Cooling in Graphene journal, June 2014

Van der Waals heterostructures journal, July 2013

Vertical and in-plane heterostructures from WS2/MoS2 monolayers journal, September 2014

Robust epitaxial growth of two-dimensional heterostructures, multiheterostructures, and superlattices journal, August 2017

Photoexcitation cascade and multiple hot-carrier generation in graphene journal, February 2013

Carrier Delocalization in Two-Dimensional Coplanar p–n Junctions of Graphene and Metal Dichalcogenides journal, July 2016

Synthesis of Lateral Heterostructures of Semiconducting Atomic Layers journal, December 2014

Graphene Photonics, Plasmonics, and Optoelectronics journal, January 2014

Large-scale chemical assembly of atomically thin transistors and circuits journal, July 2016

Generation of photovoltage in graphene on a femtosecond timescale through efficient carrier heating journal, April 2015

Disorder-Assisted Electron-Phonon Scattering and Cooling Pathways in Graphene journal, September 2012

Lateral epitaxial growth of two-dimensional layered semiconductor heterojunctions journal, September 2014

Hot Carrier Transport and Photocurrent Response in Graphene journal, November 2011

Photo-Thermoelectric Effect at a Graphene Interface Junction journal, February 2010

Parallel Stitching of 2D Materials journal, January 2016

Role of the Seeding Promoter in MoS 2 Growth by Chemical Vapor Deposition journal, January 2014

Chiral atomically thin films journal, February 2016

Gate-Activated Photoresponse in a Graphene p–n Junction journal, October 2011

Coherent, atomically thin transition-metal dichalcogenide superlattices with engineered strain journal, March 2018

Energy flows in graphene: hot carrier dynamics and cooling journal, April 2015

Optical nano-imaging of gate-tunable graphene plasmons journal, June 2012

Gate-tuning of graphene plasmons revealed by infrared nano-imaging journal, June 2012

The rise of graphene journal, March 2007

The rise of graphene book, August 2009

Boron nitride substrates for high-quality graphene electronics journal, August 2010

Correlated fluorescence blinking in two-dimensional semiconductor heterostructures journal, December 2016

Tunable metal–insulator transition in double-layer graphene heterostructures journal, October 2011

Tuning ultrafast electron thermalization pathways in a van der Waals heterostructure journal, January 2016

Measurement of the optical dielectric function of monolayer transition-metal dichalcogenides: MoS 2 , Mo S e 2 , WS 2 , and WS e 2 journal, November 2014

Observation of long-lived interlayer excitons in monolayer MoSe2–WSe2 heterostructures journal, February 2015

Photocurrent measurements of supercollision cooling in graphene journal, December 2012

Lateral heterojunctions within monolayer MoSe2–WSe2 semiconductors journal, August 2014

Photoexcitation cascade and multiple hot carrier generation in graphene conference, May 2013

Electronic Cooling in Graphene text, January 2009

Photo-Thermoelectric Effect at a Graphene Interface Junction text, January 2009

Gate-activated photoresponse in a graphene p-n junction text, January 2010

Hot Carrier Transport and Photocurrent Response in Graphene text, January 2011

Hot Carrier-Assisted Intrinsic Photoresponse in Graphene text, January 2011

Disorder-Assisted Electron-Phonon Scattering and Cooling Pathways in Graphene text, January 2011

Photocurrent measurements of supercollision cooling in graphene text, January 2012

Photo-excitation Cascade and Multiple Carrier Generation in Graphene text, January 2012

Competing Channels for Hot Electron Cooling in Graphene text, January 2014

Directional Interlayer Spin-Valley Transfer in Two-Dimensional Heterostructures text, January 2016

Electrical and Thermal Transport in Metallic Single-Wall Carbon Nanotubes on Insulating Substrates text, January 2006

Carrier Delocalization in Two-Dimensional Coplanar p–n Junctions of Graphene and Metal Dichalcogenides journal, July 2016

Hot Carrier Transport and Photocurrent Response in Graphene journal, November 2011

Role of the Seeding Promoter in MoS 2 Growth by Chemical Vapor Deposition journal, January 2014

Synthesis of Lateral Heterostructures of Semiconducting Atomic Layers journal, December 2014

Thermal Conductivity of Monolayer Molybdenum Disulfide Obtained from Temperature-Dependent Raman Spectroscopy journal, December 2013

Gate-tuning of graphene plasmons revealed by infrared nano-imaging journal, June 2012

Correlated fluorescence blinking in two-dimensional semiconductor heterostructures journal, December 2016

Scanning tunnelling microscopy and spectroscopy of ultra-flat graphene on hexagonal boron nitride journal, February 2011

Lateral heterojunctions within monolayer MoSe2–WSe2 semiconductors journal, August 2014

Vertical and in-plane heterostructures from WS2/MoS2 monolayers journal, September 2014

Ultrafast hot-carrier-dominated photocurrent in graphene journal, January 2012

Lateral epitaxial growth of two-dimensional layered semiconductor heterojunctions journal, September 2014

Large-scale chemical assembly of atomically thin transistors and circuits journal, July 2016

Energy flows in graphene: hot carrier dynamics and cooling journal, April 2015

Robust epitaxial growth of two-dimensional heterostructures, multiheterostructures, and superlattices journal, August 2017

Coherent, atomically thin transition-metal dichalcogenide superlattices with engineered strain journal, March 2018

Photo-Thermoelectric Effect at a Graphene Interface Junction text, January 2009

Gate-activated photoresponse in a graphene p-n junction text, January 2010

Disorder-Assisted Electron-Phonon Scattering and Cooling Pathways in Graphene text, January 2011

Optical nano-imaging of gate-tuneable graphene plasmons text, January 2012

Graphene and boron nitride lateral heterostructures for atomically thin circuitry
journal, August 2012

Electrical and thermal transport in metallic single-wall carbon nanotubes on insulating substrates
journal, May 2007

Thermal Conductivity of Monolayer Molybdenum Disulfide Obtained from Temperature-Dependent Raman Spectroscopy
journal, December 2013

Ultrafast hot-carrier-dominated photocurrent in graphene
journal, January 2012

Electronic Cooling in Graphene
journal, May 2009

Electronic and plasmonic phenomena at graphene grain boundaries
journal, October 2013

Photo-thermionic effect in vertical graphene heterostructures
journal, July 2016

Hot-electron cooling by acoustic and optical phonons in monolayers of ${MoS}_{2}$ and other transition-metal dichalcogenides
journal, October 2014

Scanning tunnelling microscopy and spectroscopy of ultra-flat graphene on hexagonal boron nitride
journal, February 2011

Epitaxial growth of a monolayer WSe2-MoS2 lateral p-n junction with an atomically sharp interface
journal, July 2015

Atomically Thin Ohmic Edge Contacts Between Two-Dimensional Materials
journal, May 2016

Hot Carrier-Assisted Intrinsic Photoresponse in Graphene
journal, October 2011

Directional interlayer spin-valley transfer in two-dimensional heterostructures
journal, December 2016

Competing Channels for Hot-Electron Cooling in Graphene
journal, June 2014

Van der Waals heterostructures
journal, July 2013

Vertical and in-plane heterostructures from WS₂/MoS₂ monolayers
journal, September 2014

Robust epitaxial growth of two-dimensional heterostructures, multiheterostructures, and superlattices
journal, August 2017

Photoexcitation cascade and multiple hot-carrier generation in graphene
journal, February 2013

Carrier Delocalization in Two-Dimensional Coplanar p–n Junctions of Graphene and Metal Dichalcogenides
journal, July 2016

Synthesis of Lateral Heterostructures of Semiconducting Atomic Layers
journal, December 2014

Graphene Photonics, Plasmonics, and Optoelectronics
journal, January 2014

Large-scale chemical assembly of atomically thin transistors and circuits
journal, July 2016

Generation of photovoltage in graphene on a femtosecond timescale through efficient carrier heating
journal, April 2015

Disorder-Assisted Electron-Phonon Scattering and Cooling Pathways in Graphene
journal, September 2012

Lateral epitaxial growth of two-dimensional layered semiconductor heterojunctions
journal, September 2014

Hot Carrier Transport and Photocurrent Response in Graphene
journal, November 2011

Photo-Thermoelectric Effect at a Graphene Interface Junction
journal, February 2010

Parallel Stitching of 2D Materials
journal, January 2016

Role of the Seeding Promoter in MoS ₂ Growth by Chemical Vapor Deposition
journal, January 2014

Chiral atomically thin films
journal, February 2016

Gate-Activated Photoresponse in a Graphene p–n Junction
journal, October 2011

Coherent, atomically thin transition-metal dichalcogenide superlattices with engineered strain
journal, March 2018

Energy flows in graphene: hot carrier dynamics and cooling
journal, April 2015

Optical nano-imaging of gate-tunable graphene plasmons
journal, June 2012

Gate-tuning of graphene plasmons revealed by infrared nano-imaging
journal, June 2012

The rise of graphene
journal, March 2007

The rise of graphene
book, August 2009

Boron nitride substrates for high-quality graphene electronics
journal, August 2010

Correlated fluorescence blinking in two-dimensional semiconductor heterostructures
journal, December 2016

Tunable metal–insulator transition in double-layer graphene heterostructures
journal, October 2011

Tuning ultrafast electron thermalization pathways in a van der Waals heterostructure
journal, January 2016

Measurement of the optical dielectric function of monolayer transition-metal dichalcogenides: ${MoS}_{2}$ , $Mo S e_{2}$ , ${WS}_{2}$ , and $WS e_{2}$
journal, November 2014

Observation of long-lived interlayer excitons in monolayer MoSe2–WSe2 heterostructures
journal, February 2015

Photocurrent measurements of supercollision cooling in graphene
journal, December 2012

Lateral heterojunctions within monolayer MoSe₂–WSe₂ semiconductors
journal, August 2014

Photoexcitation cascade and multiple hot carrier generation in graphene
conference, May 2013

Electronic Cooling in Graphene
text, January 2009

Photo-Thermoelectric Effect at a Graphene Interface Junction
text, January 2009

Gate-activated photoresponse in a graphene p-n junction
text, January 2010

Hot Carrier Transport and Photocurrent Response in Graphene
text, January 2011

Hot Carrier-Assisted Intrinsic Photoresponse in Graphene
text, January 2011

Disorder-Assisted Electron-Phonon Scattering and Cooling Pathways in Graphene
text, January 2011

Photocurrent measurements of supercollision cooling in graphene
text, January 2012

Photo-excitation Cascade and Multiple Carrier Generation in Graphene
text, January 2012

Competing Channels for Hot Electron Cooling in Graphene
text, January 2014

Directional Interlayer Spin-Valley Transfer in Two-Dimensional Heterostructures
text, January 2016

Electrical and Thermal Transport in Metallic Single-Wall Carbon Nanotubes on Insulating Substrates
text, January 2006

Carrier Delocalization in Two-Dimensional Coplanar p–n Junctions of Graphene and Metal Dichalcogenides
journal, July 2016

Hot Carrier Transport and Photocurrent Response in Graphene
journal, November 2011

Role of the Seeding Promoter in MoS ₂ Growth by Chemical Vapor Deposition
journal, January 2014

Synthesis of Lateral Heterostructures of Semiconducting Atomic Layers
journal, December 2014

Thermal Conductivity of Monolayer Molybdenum Disulfide Obtained from Temperature-Dependent Raman Spectroscopy
journal, December 2013

Gate-tuning of graphene plasmons revealed by infrared nano-imaging
journal, June 2012

Correlated fluorescence blinking in two-dimensional semiconductor heterostructures
journal, December 2016

Scanning tunnelling microscopy and spectroscopy of ultra-flat graphene on hexagonal boron nitride
journal, February 2011

Lateral heterojunctions within monolayer MoSe₂–WSe₂ semiconductors
journal, August 2014

Vertical and in-plane heterostructures from WS₂/MoS₂ monolayers
journal, September 2014

Ultrafast hot-carrier-dominated photocurrent in graphene
journal, January 2012

Lateral epitaxial growth of two-dimensional layered semiconductor heterojunctions
journal, September 2014

Large-scale chemical assembly of atomically thin transistors and circuits
journal, July 2016

Energy flows in graphene: hot carrier dynamics and cooling
journal, April 2015

Robust epitaxial growth of two-dimensional heterostructures, multiheterostructures, and superlattices
journal, August 2017

Coherent, atomically thin transition-metal dichalcogenide superlattices with engineered strain
journal, March 2018

Photo-Thermoelectric Effect at a Graphene Interface Junction
text, January 2009

Gate-activated photoresponse in a graphene p-n junction
text, January 2010

Disorder-Assisted Electron-Phonon Scattering and Cooling Pathways in Graphene
text, January 2011

Optical nano-imaging of gate-tuneable graphene plasmons
text, January 2012

Competing Channels for Hot Electron Cooling in Graphene
text, January 2014

Hot-electron cooling by acoustic and optical phonons in monolayers of MoS$_2$ and other transition-metal dichalcogenides
text, January 2014

Generation of photovoltage in graphene on a femtosecond time scale through efficient carrier heating
text, January 2015